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p The relentless growth of science and technology is a feature of the modern age. The phenomenon is connected directly with the competition between the two world systems and with the collapse of the colonial empires. Both of these processes have made a marked contribution towards the intensity of the scientific and technological revolution.

p The tendency to internationalise modern science has produced a situation in which, to varying degrees, the production of all the developed capitalist countries involves scientific and technological achievements. At the same time, these achievements give rise to a number of complex problems. The unevenness of capitalist development is accentuated, causing critical economic and social upheavals. The scientific and technological revolution was one of the factors responsible for the change in the balance of economic power between the various imperialist states. Thus, Britain was reduced to third place after the USA and the FRG, and then Japan surged ahead of the FRG and Britain to take second place. The inter-imperialist contradictions, which were aggravated by these changes, and also the considerable success of science in the socialist world are forcing the ruling circles in capitalist countries to go to great lengths to boost the development of science and technology and to supply industry with the necessary raw materials. In this way, the scientific and technological revolution lends further impetus to the inter-imperialist struggle for the sources of strategic and scarce raw materials.

p The structural changes in material production brought about by technological progress have altered the position of former colonies, now independent developing countries, in the world capitalist economy. Their role as exporters of raw materials of agricultural provenance declined perceptibly. This trend is now firmly established and points to a crisis situation in the structure of the international capitalist 141 division of labour. At the same time, the developing countries remain an important source of many kinds of raw material for the imperialist powers.

p One must not lose sight of the fact that the relative decline in the importance of raw material commodities in world exports is attended by an increase in the absolute volume of the raw materials exported, including that exported by the developing countries (with the exception of primary lood products). Synthetic substitutes are competing mainly with raw material of vegetable origin. As for mineral raw materials, they provide the basis for precisely those industries which are developing particularly rapidly as a result of the latest scientific advances.

p The increased demand for aluminium and copper arises from the development of electrical engineering, electronics, aircraft production, space exploration and other industries that are expanding as a result of the scientific and technological revolution.

p The average annual rate of increase in the consumption of aluminium in the capitalist countries since 1960 has been running at 10 per cent, and in Japan, the FRG and Austria at over 20 per cent. The US Government has urged the stockpiling of aluminium (in case of strikes in the aluminium industry), and has sharply reduced the sale of raw aluminium from the strategic reserves. Japan is suffering from an acute shortage of this metal, which at one time she even used to export. According to estimates made by the journal World Metal Statistics (May 1972), the annual production of raw aluminium in the capitalist and developing countries amounted in 1970 to 8,019,000 tons, and exceeded 9 million tons in 1972. Hence, it is natural that the demand for African bauxites has produced a bitter competitive struggle for the sources of this raw material.

p A similar situation is developing in the copper market. The production of refined copper in the capitalist and developing countries went up by 12.7 per cent in 1969 compared with the previous year. The highest increases were in the USA (20.5 per cent), Britain (16.8 per cent) and Japan (14.6 per cent). Copper mining in the capitalist and developing countries increased by 9 per cent in 1969, and by 10-12 per cent in 1971. Copper consumption is also tending to 142 rise steadily. The increase in consumption between 1967 and 1969 amounted to 29.2 per cent in the FRG, 30.8 per cent in Canada and 32 per cent in Japan. In the USA some 7 per cent of all copper used goes on military production.

p The scientific and technological revolution has done more than simply raise demand for the ferrous and traditional non-ferrous metals (aluminium, copper, zinc, etc.). The new industries that are springing up from the scientific revolution, including the nuclear missile and aerospace industries, electronics and the industry producing special types of armaments, have drastically raised their specifications as to the quality of the materials and their possession of new properties: superhardiness, greater resistance to heat, vibration, corrosion, radiation and the effect of micro-organisms, the ability to withstand high velocities and meteorite bombardment, and many others. Accordingly, there has been a steep climb in the demand for refractory metals (vanadium, niobium, tantalum, molybdenum, tungsten, selenium, zirconium and a number of rare-earth metals).

p Although the consumption of raw materials used in nuclear missile technology, electronics and space probe construction is as yet relatively small, it is displaying a clear tendency to increase. In addition, the imperialist powers, and especially the USA, are stockpiling rare metals for strategic purposes, since it is considered that in certain circumstances access to them could be made more difficult. This factor also affects the struggle for the sources of these kinds of raw material.

p The growth of the nuclear industry is having a substantial effect on the question of mining certain minerals in a number of developing African countries. The minerals in question are mainly the nuclear raw materials (uranium, thorium and lithium) and the metals used as building materials (tungsten, molybdenum, etc.).

p The imperialist powers are struggling for the sources of these kinds of raw material for a number of reasons. Firstly, in order to produce weapons of mass destruction. Secondly, capitalist monopolies are trying to seize complete control of the mining of strategic raw materials that are in very short supply, since they command extremely high prices on the world market. Thirdly, the demand for uranium concentrates 143 in particular has increased, owing to the construction of atomic power stations, especially since nuclear power is seen as the principal future source of electrical power in the USA, Britain, France, the FRG, Japan and several other capitalist countries. This last point should be particularly noted.

p In 1969 the total capacity of atomic power stations in the capitalist countries amounted to 27 million kilowatts (6.8 million kw in 1966), with Britain accounting for 38 per cent, the USA 25 per cent and France 11 per cent. By 1980 it will have reached 345 million kw and will constitute 20- 22 per cent of the combined capacity of all the power stations in the capitalist world. In the USA, for instance, the proportion of all types of fuel used to produce electrical energy will have declined sharply by 1982, but it will have grown by some 35 times in the production of atomic energy. By 1976 the USA will possess 53 per cent of the world’s atomic power production capacity, Britain 12 per cent, Japan 7 per cent and Canada 5 per cent. The development of atomic power production is leading to a new round in the imperialist powers’ struggle for the sources of nuclear fuel. As will be shown below, the African countries are the main battlefield.

p The scientific and technological revolution has also put a new complexion on the question of oil, which has always been a source of inter-imperialist conflict. Changes in the extraction and consumption of oil and natural gas are being caused both by the raising of their importance in the world energy balance and by the growth of their use as raw materials for the chemical industry. In this connection, the role of those developing countries possessing large reserves of oil has risen enormously. It is symptomatic that oil production in the developed capitalist countries rose by 45 per cent between 1960 and 1970, and by 300 per cent in the developing countries. Total oil production in the capitalist world increased from 829 million tons in 1960 to 1,880 million tons in 1970.

p The closure of the Suez Canal following the Israeli aggression in 1967 and the need to transport oil and petroleum products from the Middle East by the longer Cape route also caused the oil monopolies to energetically explore 144 new areas. The search for oil was particularly intense in African countries (Ghana, the Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, Togo, the Malagasy Republic, etc.). In terms of the growth of oil output, Africa leads the oil-bearing regions of the world; in 1968 there was a 26.6 per cent increase over the 1967 level. This was mainly due to the unprecedented expansion of Libya’s oil industry (with a 49.2 per cent in crease) and also that of Algeria and Nigeria.

p The growth in the consumption of oil products in the capitalist countries is running at about 10 per cent per annum, and at 15 per cent on average in Japan. Oil refinery capacity is being greatly extended. In the countries of Western Europe it rose in 1969 by more than 20 per cent compared with 1967. In 1969 and 1970, 68 new oil refineries were built and 72 existing ones were extended in the capitalist countries (excluding the USA and Canada).

p One of the most important factors in the scientific and technological revolution’s effect on the growth of oil extraction is the progressive expansion of the use of oil as a raw material for producing various chemical products (
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Table 8 The Growth of the Mining Industry in the Developing Countries and the Imperialist States (1963 = 100) Mining Industry Africa’s share in mining the All Mining Oil and (!as main kinds of mineral raw material in the Developing Imperialist Developing Imperialist capitalist world countries countries countries countries (excluding oil nnd gas)* % 1938 18 54 10 36 29.5 1948 27 68 20 59 32.5 1958 61 88 56 85 33.4 1968 148 115 160 120 39.7 * Author’s calculation. Sources: Monthly Bulletin of SfaMslics, May i960; Afriha, SlaHslir.heshy sbornih, Moscow. 1969, pp. 129-43. 145
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plastics, artificial fibre, etc.). The world’s largest monopolies are competing in this field, since by and large only they can build and run petrochemical plants (it costs between 5 and 30 million dollars to build these plants, which is beyond the means of small and even medium-sized companies). During the past decade the number of petrochemical plants in the main imperialist states has trebled and now stands at about 1,500.

p Since 1960 there has been rapid growth in the production of plastics and other oil-derivatives.

p The high rate of technical progress in the petrochemical industry is not only shown by the output figures, which, incidentally, also reveal that the development rates attained in this sector of the economy by individual countries are far from equal. Numerous new and improved kinds of chemical products made their appearance in the world market as early as 1968. An example is the synthetic material kiana, made of polyamide fibre. It took the Du Pont de Nemours concern 20 years and 75 million dollars to produce this material. It is forecast that by 1975 the range of plastics produced in the USA will be renewed by 40 per cent compared with the 1965 level, petrochemicals will be renewed by 36 per cent and synthetic fibres by 30 per cent. Similar trends are apparent in other capitalist countries, especially Japan.

p By raising the demand for oil, the scientific and technological revolution is intensifying the inter-imperialist struggle for oil sources.

p Forecasts of the world consumption of mineral raw materials show that their production will have to rise at an even faster rate. According to foreign and Soviet specialists, the consumption of oil, natural gas, aluminium and several rare metals will treble over the next 20-30 years, and the consumption of ferrous and heavy non-ferrous metals will increase by 50-100 per cent. In 1975 the consumption of liquid fuel, light-weight non-ferrous metals, copper, cobalt and vanadium will be 50-80 per cent higher than in 1965; there will be a 30-50 per cent increase in the consumption of manganese, zinc and lead. An important factor in the process is the enlargement of the number of consumers of the raw materials, with a consequent increase 146 in the number of competitors. Japan provides us with a typical example. In July 1955 the Ministry for Foreign Trade and Industry announced "special measures to develop the petrochemical industry”. Since then Japan has become second only to the USA in the capitalist world in the output of the principal petrochemicals, and continues to develop the industry at an ever increasing rate. A number of ethyleneproducing factories with a capacity of between 300 and 500 thousand tons a year are being built in the country. By 1975 the production of ethylene in Japan will more than double in comparison with 1968; plastics production will go up by 150-175 per cent; the output of synthetic rubber (begun only in 1959) will rise by 120 per cent and synthetic fibre by 200 per cent. In addition, the Japanese are making progress in their attempts to improve the production of synthetic paper, and several factories are being built to produce synthetic protein from oil.

p The rapid growth of the petrochemical industry has made Japan one of the front-runners not only in the consumption of oil but also as regards the wish to capture oil sources. Typically enough, after the war the deepest penetration of foreign capital occurred in the Japanese oil industry. At present the position of foreign capital in this sector is gradually weakening. As the Financial ’Times of the 22 September 1969 observes: "During the last few years several battles have taken place between the Japanese authorities and foreign, mainly American, companies. So far the Japanese have come off best.”

p The imperialist battle for other kinds of raw material, the consumption of which will also increase, especially uranium, is also hotting up. According to UN forecasts, by 1980 the demand for uranium will be 6 times as high as in 1970. There is nothing surprising in this. In Japan, for instance, in 1969 there was only one atomic power station in operation, with a capacity of 166 thousand kw. By 1975 there will be 13 of them, with a total capacity of 7,257 megawatts. In the USA in 1968 firms building atomic reactors received orders for 100 complete nuclear installations for atomic power stations.

p There are a number of other important factors that must be borne in mind when examining the effect of technical 147 progress on raw material problems. The present scientific and technological revolution is developing under the impact of not only the traditional competition between the monopolies in world and domestic markets. The struggle between the two opposing social systems is also of tremendous importance. The contest with socialism caused the imperialist states, and especially the USA, to give priority consideration to the question of the rate of economic growth. In addition, the capitalist world rarely acts in unison in this struggle, as was shown above. In some instances, interimperialist rivalry intensifies under the influence of the struggle between the two systems. The capitalist monopolies are now faced with the additional task of surpassing one another in order to compete more successfully with the socialist countries. The result is that machinery becomes obsolete much sooner. Fundamental changes in technological processes often entail the replacement of perfectly usable machines, tools, etc., which in turn raises the consumption of raw materials. The last factor is that the lifting of colonial oppression from the countries of Asia and Africa has resulted in an expansion of the world market. National industries are springing up in the young states (on differing scales but practically everywhere), which also increases the demand for machinery, transport and so on. In addition to the need for extra raw materials for the manufacturing countries, the industrialisation of the former colonies and semi-colonies brings about a situation in which a certain quantity of the raw materials mined is used on the spot instead of being exported.

p The scientific and technological revolution is responsible for a number of contradictory tendencies in the world raw materials system and has brought substantial changes in industrial structure. But it has not yet led to the changes in the role and importance of raw materials that would lead one to conclude that the inter-imperialist struggle for raw material sources is showing any signs of dropping sharply in intensity in the foreseeable future.

p During the twenty years from 1938 to 1958 the mining industry in the developing countries grew by 43 per cent, and in the following decade by 87 per cent. During the same ten years the mining industry in the imperialist states 148 grew by only 27 per cent. Africa’s share in the mining of mineral raw materials in the capitalist world rose by 7 per cent.

p Despite the fact that the competing monopolies are attempting to reduce the consumption of natural raw materials, are stepping up the use of secondary materials (e.g., through the use of waste, scrap metal, etc.) and are cutting down on the raw material content of the finished product (especially metal consumption in engineering and other industries), the total consumption of raw material continues to increase with the expansion of production. The growing importance of synthetic products and other substitutes boosts the demand for the oil and gas from which they are produced. Even in the developed capitalist states oil output has doubled over the last 20 years, and in the former colonies and semi-colonies it has shot up by nearly 10 times. Industry is now making wide use of fissionable materials, the ore of refractory metals and certain rare metals and elements that were not used previously.

p The militarisation of the economies of the imperialist powers is an important factor determining the role of the developing countries as the suppliers of minerals and fuel for the world capitalist market. The monopolies are using the increased possibilities of science and technology not just for their own selfish ends (to boost profits, intensify the exploitation of the masses and strengthen the means of coercion). Most scientific discoveries and vast material resources are diverted into military channels. In the USA 62 per cent of all scientific achievements are militarised, in Britain 40 per cent and in France and the FRG over 30 per cent. At the same time, much thought is given to the mobilisation of the raw material resources that are located both in the imperialist states themselves and in the developing countries which depend on them. Raw materials are being sought not only to meet the current needs of the war industry. Some kinds of raw materials are being accumulated and stockpiled. During the early postwar years the USA adopted a programme for creating strategic reserves of raw material, and, in accordance with this programme, raw material is still being imported from many countries throughout the world, including those in Africa. 149 Britain, France, the FRG and Japan are pursuing similar policies.

p According to official information, of the 99 sorts of raw material that are vital to the American economy the USA imports more than 30, and of the 97 actively used in industry the country is self-sufficient in only 23.

p The following figures describe the place of the import of raw materials in the American economy. Every year the USA exports approximately 30,000 million dollars’ worth of goods and imports raw materials to the same value. The American metallurgical industry, which is dependent on imported raw material, has an annual output valued at 22,300 million dollars, of which the aluminium industry accounts for 3,900 million dollars.

p It is not surprising that the question of raw materials from Africa is mentioned in one way or another in all official documents and academic studies dealing with US policy in Africa. In 1961 the report of a group of American specialists to President Kennedy made it clear that Africa played a decisive role in Western defence: she safeguarded NATO’s southern flank. Twenty kinds of strategic raw material were located in Africa.^^1^^ In his book Africa and United States Policy Rupert Emerson observes that many American sources attempt to belittle Africa’s economic importance to the USA. However, a detailed look at American imports from African countries reveals the continent’s true significance to the USA. The USA imports from Africa nearly 100 per cent of her imported diamonds, lithium derivatives, beryllium, columbite, cobalt and palm oil; over 50 per cent of her cocoa, vanilla, long-staple cotton and mahogany; 25 per cent of her antimony, chrome, graphite, manganese and tantalum; and significant quantities of rubber, gold, uranium and oil.

p In their struggle to get at the African countries’ raw material resources, the US monopolies are meeting with stiff competition from British, French and Belgian capital, which has exploited Africa’s wealth for many decades and which still retains important positions. The West German and Japanese monopolies are also putting up a fight. Britain, which has no minerals of her own, is even more dependent on the import of raw materials than the USA. Britain 150 imports 45 per cent of her manganese from Africa, 50 per cent of chromites, 45 per cent of copper, 60 per cent of bauxites and 60 per cent of her tin. African countries supply France with 100 per cent of her uranium, 30 per cent of oil, 95 per cent of phosphates, 33 per cent of iron ore, 30 per cent of non-ferrous metals, 66 per cent of unseasoned timber and 80 per cent of her tropical wood. The FRG is also becoming a major consumer of African oil, iron ore and non-ferrous and rare metals. Japan’s purchases of raw materials from Africa for her ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgical industry are rising steeply. Raw materials and food account for approximately 80 per cent of Japanese imports. Japan imports nearly all the oil and iron ore that she needs. In 1969 her imports of iron ore rose to 68 million tons. Africa’s share (7.82 million tons) amounts to over 10 per cent of all Japanese imports and is on the increase. Japanese firms are constructing gigantic ore-carriers in order to transport ore from West Africa.

p The African continent has already supplied the capitalist world with minerals for many decades. This role became even more prominent after the collapse of the colonial system for the following reasons. Many of the barriers through which the metropolises had limited the access of other imperialist powers to African raw materials also collapsed. Although geological surveys are far from complete, some of the reserves discovered have already placed a number of African countries high up in the list of the world’s mineral “banks”. The mining conditions and the abundance of cheap manpower in Africa offer mining and oil companies the opportunity to net the world’s highest returns on invested capital. The economic backwardness of most African countries, the absence of any real industry of their own and their acute need for capital make it easy for foreign monopolies to get their hands on the continent’s natural resources. All these factors are at work to differing degrees in various countries, but they operate together, not in isolation. Naturally, the main factor is Africa’s vast known reserves of scarce minerals: oil and gas deposits in Libya, Algeria and Nigeria, bauxites in Guinea, uranium in Gabon, Niger and the Central African Republic, iron ore in Liberia and Mauritania, copper in Zambia and Zaire, 151 manganese in Gabon, rare metals in Nigeria, Namibia and Zaire, gold and diamonds in Sierra Leone, and so on.

p During the postwar years Africa’s raw material resources gave rise to a “rediscovery” of the continent. In 1953 the Sahara was considered to be a barren desert. The wellknown French specialist Professor Robert Capot-Rey declared that it was "too soon" to talk of there being oil in the Sahara,^^2^^ but in 1959 at the Fifth World Petroleum Congress in New York experts concluded that North Africa would soon be as important a source of oil for the world market as the Middle East. A similar situation developed in Nigeria, where the enormous reserves of oil were only discovered in 1965. Large uranium beds were found in the Central African Republic and Niger in 1967; in Guinea the follow-up explorations of 1962 revealed the world’s largest deposits of bauxites.

p Even though a cautious approach needs to be adopted towards the published statements of certain and probable mineral resources in Africa, since these statements are often inaccurate, they nevertheless provide ample testimony to the considerable importance of Africa in world resources. One further fact is of interest. Despite the intensive exploitation of mineral reserves in most parts of the continent, these deposits are showing no signs of exhaustion. In fact, the known reserves of many raw materials are even increasing. It is also noteworthy that the growth is taking place not only in absolute terms. Africa’s share is increasing in the general reserves of the capitalist world. In the case of oil and gas, for example, of which Africa contained respectively 2 per cent and 8 per cent in 1961, the continent accounted for 12 per cent in 1970.

p The table given below shows that Africa currently contains over 80 per cent of the capitalist world’s known reserves of cobalt and tantalum, 72 per cent of its chromites, 60 per cent of titanium, 40 per cent of copper and manganese, 30 per cent of bauxites, 27 per cent of uranium, 20 per cent of niobium and antimony and 13-15 per cent of lithium, beryllium, tin, graphite and asbestos.

p No information is published regarding the reserves of gold and diamonds. However, to judge from output levels, which in recent years have accounted for respectively 152 Estimated Reserves of Mineral Haw Material in 1971 Mineral Unit All capitalist and developing countries Africa Africa’s pronortion (%) Oil ..... million tons 72,708.00 7,828.7 11.0 Gas . . . 000 million m^^3^^ 32,948.6 5,462.0 17.0 Coal .... million tons 2,694,544.00 88,156 4.0 Iron ore . . . Manganese . . Copper .... Zinc ..... 212,397.00 984.00 253.20 129.80 30,825 403.2 95.7 7.1 12.0 41.0 39.0 6.0 Chromites . . — 1,050.20 1,161.5 80.9 Graphite . . . Cobalt .... — 158.60 2.40 23.7 2.0 15.0 87.0 Bauxites . . . — 9,682.00 3,350 30.0 Asbestos . . . .— 93.50 13.7 14.0 Titanium . . . Tin . — 659.50 5.90 401.5 0.3 60.8 19.0 Lead ..... 79.90 4.4 5.5 Antimony . . Niobium . . . thousand tons 1.56 9,692.00 0.34 1,975.0 21.5 20.3 Tantalum . . . — 69.40 57.9 83.0 Beryllium . . Lithium . . . million tons 521.00 18.40 68 2.7 13.0 15.0 Uranium . . . thousand tons 587.00 251.8 31.6 Phosphates . . million tons 44,498.20 26,028.8 60.0 Sources: A/riha, Statistichesky sbornlk, Moscow, 1969; Petroleum Press Service, January 1972; Monthly Bulletin ot Statistics, 1972.
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75 per cent and 98 per cent of the gold and diamond production of the whole capitalist world, Africa must contain the bulk of these minerals too.

p Taking the existing estimates of Africa’s reserves of minerals and fuel as a starting point and comparing them with the output levels for 1969 and 1970, one can calculate for roughly how long these reserves are going to last.

p Naturally, these figures provide only a rough guide, since mining output will inevitably rise and new deposits
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153 A Hough Guide to tlie Expected Duration of Some of Africa’s Haw Material Resources Oil Coal Gas Iron ore Manganese Copper Niobium Tin Zinc Beryllium Tantalum 30 years Phosphates Titanium Graphite Bauxites Chromitcs Cobalt Uranium Lead Lithium Asbestos Antimony 1,625 years 6,700 — 1,186 — 1,000 — 500 — 70 — 40— 15 — 41 __ 34 — 25 — 300 570 80 100 760 40 25 52 193 Source: Calculations made by the Institute of Africa, USSR Academy of Sciences.
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will be discovered, especially since the continent must still contain much unexplored wealth. It should also be recalled that nearly all the prospecting and geological survey work in Africa is in the hands of Western companies, which also control the world market situation. Consequently, they often distort information regarding deposits or conceal it altogether, as happened, for example, with the Guinean bauxite deposits at Boke.

p The role of African minerals in the world capitalist economy depends, of course, not just on the size of the deposits, but mainly on the rate of output. Examination shows that an absolute growth is taking place in output and, at the same time, Africa is becoming increasingly important in the world capitalist production of the most vital raw materials.

The output of mining and drilling operations in African countries has greatly increased over the past 10 years. The output of oil has risen 20 times, natural gas 15 times, bauxities by 250 per cent, copper ore by 60 per cent, manganese ore by 100 per cent, phosphates by 85 per cent, cobalt by 70 per cent and chromites by 40 per cent. Despite these figures, Africa remains the world’s runner-up in terms of the growth of her gross national product. Since the achievement of independence the African countries’ average annual per capita growth in GNP has not exceeded 1.2 per

154 Table 10 Africa’s Share in the Mining of the Main Kinds of Raw Minerals in the Capitalist World Material Unit All capitalist and developing countries Africa Africa’s proportion (%) 1960 1965 1970 1960 1965 | 1970 196(1 1965 I’.ifO Oil million tons 882,9 1,233.0 1,900.0 13.7 106.9 294.0 1.5 8.7 15.5 Gas OCO million m^^3^^ 516,6 587.4 800.0 0.6 5.9 15.5 0.1 1.1 1.9 Coal million tons 1,090.0 1,120.0 1,090.0 43.2 53.6 54.0 3.9 4.9 4 . 9 Iron ore — 341,4 401.3 460.0 15.8 39.5 57.8 4.6 9.8 12.2 Uranium thousand tons 47,0 18.7 28.0 9.0 3.4 6.0 19.2 18.7 22.0 Manganese million tons 6,4 8.5 11.4 3.1 4.6 6.4 48.0 54.0 56.0 Chromites — 3,1 3.0 1.8 1.4 2.6 1.9 45.0 52.0 51.3 Cobalt thousand tons 15,4 16.3 18.0 11.5 12.4 16.5 75.0 76.0 80.0 Vanadium — — 14.8 18.5 — 4.6 8.8 — 31.0 33.0 Copper — 3,548.4 4,086.7 6,050.0 977.5 1,115.0 1,280.0 26.9 27.1 26.9 Lead — 1,675.0 1,896.8 3,249.0 207.4 231.0 325.0 12.4 12.0 10.1 Till — 137.6 154.4 181.0 20.7 20.7 22.5 15.0 13.4 13.1 155 Bauxites Antimony Lithium Beryllium Phosphates Asbestos Gold Platinum Diamonds thousand tons 21,400.0 29,300.0 35,000.0 1,600.0 2,400.0 14.9 66.0 1.4 16.1 409.9 1,001.1 20.2 31.7 3,200.0 16.0 90.0 2.8 22.0 550.0 1,303.0 35.0 35.0 7.4 46.2 40.6 35.2 21.0 69.0 48.4 98.5 7.2 41.7 50.0 32.6 34.1 21.1 80.0 56.0 98.0 7.7 40.0 50.0 35.0 34.0 20.0 80.0 58.0 98.0 29.1 10.1 30.5 35.5 130.9 4.3 47.6 40.0 180.0 8.0 64.0 13.5 4.1 10.7 297.9 726.5 10.9 26.1 million tons thousand tons tons 1,416.5 1,914.6 2,750.0 1,053.0 22.6 1,275.3 35.8 32.2 1,625.0 65.0 35.0 million carats— Sources: Compiled and calculated from: Afiiha. Statistichethi tbornifc,Moscow, 1969; R.K.A. Gardiner, Refcatch for Economic mid Social Development Africa. Second Inteinationcl Congietsof Africanitl*, Dakar, Senegal. December 11-111, 1967. p- 9; Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, May 1969. 1970; Statistical Suimnaiy of the Mineral Industiy. \óild Piodudion, Expo* is and Importi 196J-2909, London, 1971. 156 cent. This is a further indication that the intensive development of the mining industry is still largely in the interests of foreign capital.

p The data given in Table 10 allow one to make several conclusions. Firstly, Africa dominates the capitalist world in the output of certain kinds of raw material, and especially the raw materials for which there is a growing demand owing to the development of new industries arising from the scientific and technological revolution, i.e., copper, antimony, lithium, cobalt, manganese, chromium, etc. Secondly, Africa’s total share in the capitalist world’s production of the 21 main types of mineral and fuel resources amounts to 35 per cent. This proportion tends to grow with the discovery and working of new deposits, especially of oil, gas, iron ore and bauxites. Thirdly, if one looks at the mineral output figures it becomes apparent that an absolute growth is taking place in the mining operations for all types of raw materials and the range of materials is also expanding. Fourthly, the table shows the volume of the raw material currently imported from Africa by the capitalist countries, since the bulk of the production goes to them.

p During the early postwar years most of Africa’s fuel and mining output was sent to Britain, France and Belgium, but by the mid-sixties these countries had been joined by the USA, the FRG and Japan. Thus, it is of interest to compare the geography of the mining and export of the main types of African raw materials, since the clusters of contradictions and the mainsprings of the rivalry and competition between the imperialist powers in Africa are then revealed.

p Table 11 shows that a list of the main consumers of African raw materials includes only the principal imperialist powers. Given the existing nature of the African countries’ foreign trade links and their tendency to develop, this situation will, clearly, continue for a long time. Competition will only change the relative importance of a particular capitalist consumer.

In order to form an idea of the future balance of power between the capitalist states as far as the mining and consumption of African raw materials are concerned, we shall

157 Table 11 The Main Suppliers and Consumers of African Raw Materials Raw Material Suppliers Consumers Possible Volume- of Annual Deliveries by 1980 Oil . Libya Algeria Nigeria Britain, USA, France, FRG, 400 million tons Iron ore ......... Gas .... Liberia, Mauritania, South Africa Algeria Libya Italy FRG, Britain, Japan Britain, France, Italy, FRG 80 million tons 20 000 million m^^3^^ Manganese South Africa Gabon Ghana USA, Britain, France 6 million tons Chromites ........ Cobalt ...... Morocco, Zaire South Africa, Rhodesia Zambia Morocco Zaire USA, Britain, France USA Belgium France 4 million tons 15 thousand tons Copper . . Zambia South Africa Zaire Lead . Japan ’}fin 000 tons Zinc . . . Zaire, Zambia, Algeria, France, Belgium 250,000 tons Bauxites Namibia Guinea, Ghana Italy, Japan 158 Raw Material Suppliers Consumers Possible Volume of Annual Deliveries by 1980 Antimony South Africa USA 15 000 tons South Africa, Zaire USA 50 tons Rhodesia, Namibia USA, Britain 70 000 tons Phosphates ........ Uranium ......... Graphite Morocco, Tunisia South Africa, Gabon, Niger, Malagasy Rep., Zambia Malagasy Republic Britain, France, Belgium, FRG USA, France, Britain, FRG USA, France 15 million tons 6,000 tons of uranium oxide 20,000 tons Bery Ilium Uganda Mozambique, Mala- Britain, USA 2 500 tons gasy Republic Source: Author’s calculations. 159 examine the general picture presented by their current participation in the main sectors of the African mining industry. It should be borne in mind that the African mining industry is conventionally divided into two types—the traditional mines that were opened during the colonial period and the new mines which have sprung up in recent years following intensive geological surveys and systematic reinvestigation of deposits located earlier.

p Thus, in the late fifties and early sixties new deposits of oil and gas of world-wide importance were discovered and worked in North and West Africa (Libya, Algeria and Nigeria), iron ore was found in West Africa (Liberia, Mauritania and Guinea), chromites (Rhodesia), manganese and uranium (Gabon and the Central African Republic) and bauxites (Guinea and Cameroun).

p It is mainly the old colonial mining monopolies, especially those of the former metropolises, that are active in the traditional sectors; but the new sectors attract capital from other powers too—the USA, the FRG, Japan, Italy and Canada. It is in this sector that, together with the amalgamation of monopoly capitals, the most persistent imperialist conflicts take place.

p It is typical, for instance, that some 75 per cent of the total amount of American and West German capital investment in Africa is in the new sectors of the mining and oil industry, while for Britain and France the figure is 50 per cent and 45 per cent respectively.

p Although the interests of the monopolies of various countries intermingle as regards the mining of African minerals and a system of collaboration is developing together with the formation of mixed companies, nevertheless in each region or even at individual major locations either the capital of one particular foreign country holds sway or a power struggle is taking place between the monopolist amalgamations of competing powers.

p The operations of mining companies controlled by British capital are concentrated in Southern and Central Africa. Firms and companies dealing with raw materials, energy, transport, marketing, etc., forming part of the OppenheimerRothschild monopolist group are heavily represented in these areas. In all, the group brings together over 150 160 different corporations, companies and firms that are engaged in mining of gold, diamonds, copper, cobalt, coal, rare metals, asbestos, manganese and chromium, and which also sell these commodities on the world market. The largest members of the group are the Anglo-American Corporation of South Africa, De Beers Consolidated Mines, Tanganyika Concessions, Rio Tinto Zinc, Zambian Anglo-American Ltd. (ZAMANGLO) and a number of others. All these companies are almost entirely British, and the “Anglo-American” element in some of the names is purely traditional. American capital (especially from Morgan’s banks) was represented in them during the twenties, but later the Americans were bought out by the London banks. Moreover, as will be shown below, Zambian Anglo-American is the principal rival and competitor in copper mining of the American group Roan Selection Trust (RST).

p American capital in Africa still adds up to considerably less than the quantity of British capital, but its field of activity is considerably wider, since it is infiltrating not only former British Africa but also the countries which were previously under the control of other European metropolises. In practice, all African countries that are endowed with reserves of valuable raw material are coveted, to varying degrees, by the US monopolies. At first, American capital used to penetrate Africa mainly through the European mining companies already operating there. The US monopolies would buy up shares and organise mixed subsidiary companies. It was in this way, for example, that the US monopolies American Metal Climax (AMAX), Newmont Mining and others came to be firmly established in Zambia. AMAX acquired 50.6 per cent of the shares in RST, and Newmont Mining bought 56 per cent of the shares in the South African O’okiep Copper Company Ltd. (in which AMAX seized 20 per cent of the shares). The two monopolies have bought up nearly 60 per cent of the shares in the Tsumeb Corporation Ltd., which processes the polymetallic ore deposits of Namibia.

p The expansion of American capital into the zones of British influence was not the least important reason for the regrouping that took place among British monopolies in 1964 and which was intended to strengthen their position. 161 In Zambia the colonial British South Africa Company (BSAC) reigned supreme for many years. Its activities were based on privileges granted by arrangement with the British Government, one of which gave it exclusive rights to prospecting for minerals. With the declaration of Zambian independence these rights were abolished and BSAC received £4 million in compensation, with half of this sum being paid by the Government of Zambia. The new conditions seriously undermined BSAC’s competitiveness, and it was then decided to merge three British companies—BSAC, the Central Mining and Investment Corporation and Consolidated Mines Selection. The last two companies form part of the Anglo-American group. The new monopoly, known as Charter Consolidated, has capital investments in South Africa, Namibia, Zambia, Rhodesia, Zaire, Angola and a number of other countries.

p From the late fifties and early sixties more companies began to be formed in Africa to exploit newly discovered deposits of iron ore, manganese, bauxites, copper, oil, gas and other minerals. Since the colonial barriers in many countries had collapsed by this time, American capital was able to compete on equal terms. US monopolies captured a half of all mininig operations for manganese ore in Gabon (United States Steel Overseas Corporation) and a considerable part of the mining of Guinean bauxites (Harvey Aluminium and ALCOA), Mauritanian copper and so on.

p The following list showing the proportional participation of foreign capital in a number of countries (in %) is given as an illustration of the balance of power between the monopolies of the main imperialist powers in the African mining industry.^^3^^ Gabon—manganese ore: France 51, USA 49; uranium: France 100. Mauritania—iron ore: France 55.8, Britain 19, Italy 15.2, FRG 5; copper: Britain and South Africa 45, France 18. Senegal—phosphates: France 84.3, USA 12. Namibia—polymetallic ores: USA 82, South Africa 15.6, Britain 2.4. Libya—oil: USA 90. Nigeria—oil: Britain 80, USA 10, France 5. Ghana—manganese ore: Britain 80, USA 12. Rhodesia—chromites: USA 78, Britain 14. Uganda—copper-cobalt ores: Britain 60, Holland 10—and so on.

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p Even this short list shows that the positions of the monopolies of the main capitalist countries as regards the mining of African mineral resources are far from equal and that the former metropolises of Britain and France still have the greatest measure of control. This situation is intensifying the inter-imperialist struggle for the continent’s raw material resources.

p The following two factors particularly embitter the competitive struggle of the monopolies for Africa’s raw material wealth and narrow the field of activity of foreign capital. In a number of young African states, primarily those with a socialist orientation, steps are being taken to limit the exploitation of their resources by capitalist countries. Either foreign property is being nationalised or effective control is placed over it, and national and mixed mining companies are being set up. Such measures were taken in Algeria (oil), Guinea (bauxite mining), Zambia (copper belt workings) and so on.

p Another important factor—the strengthening of economic co-operation between the young countries and the Soviet Union and other states of the socialist community—has farreaching effects. Firstly, the positions of national governments and the state sector are consolidated. Secondly, the socialist countries are giving considerable help to the local authorities in assessing the reserves of various kinds of minerals. For instance, the work carried out by Soviet geologists in Africa resulted in substantial modifications being made to the geological maps of certain countries that had been drawn by Western specialists. Thirdly, organisations from the socialist states are beginning to take part (on completely equitable and mutually beneficial terms) in the mining of certain kinds of African raw materials.

p The elimination of foreign capital from what once seemed to be an impregnable position increases its struggle for influence from the now-eroded strongholds.

The data given above indicate that many of the natural resources belonging to the liberated countries of Africa play an important role in the economies of the main capitalist states, and this state of affairs will clearly persist for the next 10-15 years. At the same time, the high rate at which the African mining industry is being developed, together 163 with fhe extremely poor growth of other industries and the fact that nearly all the raw material mined is exported to the West, leads to the situation in which the liberated countries continue to be raw material-supplying appendages of the imperialist powers within the world capitalist division of labour. Thus, the conditions are maintained not only for the exploitation of the young states but also for the continuation of the inter-imperialist struggle for the continent’s raw material wealth.