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The Crisis of the Third Century

p The Golden Age of the Roman Empire came to an end in the year 192, when the last emperor of the Antonine dynasty, Cornmodus, was slain at the hands of conspirators. After the struggle among various claimants to the throne, Septimius Severus 118 emeiged the victor and reigned from 193 to 211 A.D During his reign the empire acquired an openly martial character. Septimius Severus carried out a number of reforms in the army. For example, soldiers from the ranks were now given the right to continue serving and be promoted to become commanders and be admitted to the equestrian order. This measure opened before the soldiers wide vistas for both a military and a civilian career. It was no coincidence that in subsequent years there were to appear so-called "soldier emperors" and that rumours spread to the effect that Septimius Severus on his death-bed left instructions to his sons to "make the soldiers rich and not to pay any attention to the rest".

p The Severine dynasty did not rule for long. After the last of those emperors had been murdered, for a short time power was in the hands of Maximinus, a former shepherd who had entered the army as a common soldier. However, he was soon murdered and after his death there began a rapid, sometimes almost kaleidoscopic succession of emperors, military revolts and coups. At the same time the pressure from the barbarian tribes at the frontiers of the empire increased. The Franks and the Alemanni invaded Gaul, the Saxons invaded Britain and the Moors swept into Africa, while a major barbarian alliance was taking shape among the various Gothic tribes in the countries bordering the Black Sea. Military confrontations with these barbarian tribes were made all the more difficult for the central government by the fact that at the same time they were obliged to curb disturbances at home. Rome soon lost a number of her Western provinces—Gaul, Britain and Spain. In the East there emerged the Kingdom of Palmyra, which after concluding an alliance with Persia gained control of almost all the empire’s Eastern provinces.

p This period was also marked by an intensification of the class conflict. In contrast with the movements of the second and first centuries B.C., the main role in the new uprisings was played not by the slaves but other groups among the exploited and dependent peasantry. But this does not mean that the slaves took no part at all in these movements. There were a number of uprisings in Africa and Asia Minor, but most important of all was the great revolt of the peasants and slaves in Gaul. The revolt spread far and wide and eventually reached as far as Spain. It had started in the sixties of the third century and with various intervals lasted over several decades.

Thus the Roman Empire was literally falling apart. The weakening of the central power, the wars on its frontiers, revolts at home—these were all social and political manifestations of a profound crisis.

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But the crisis had roots that went still deeper, that were bound up with the very economic foundations of Roman society and were reflected in the changing ideology of those times. The disintegration of the economic basis of Roman society was closely bound up with the emergence of the coloni and the ideological crisis found expression first and foremost in the emergence and spread of Christianity.

The Emergence of the Colonate

p Slave labour and an economy based on slavery no longer answered the demands of the times. A slave was not interested in the fruits of his labours and always worked under compulsion. It was almost impossible, or at least very complicated to ensure adequate supervision of vast masses of slaves, and this state of affairs acted as a brake on the development of the large landed estates organised on a basis of slave labour.

p During the second half of the second century A.D. the Roman emperors were obliged to introduce a number of measures limiting to a certain extent the power and rights of the slave-owners. Prisons for slaves on individual estates were done away with and it was made illegal to keep slaves permanently in fetters. Furthermore, slave-owners were no longer allowed to put their slaves to death. In this way the state started to play a much more active role than before in relations between masters and slaves.

p On the other hand, the slave-owners themselves started providing incentives for the slaves to work. Some hired out their slaves, allowing them to keep a part of their wages thus earned. A more common practice was to give slaves property in the form of a piece of land, a workshop or a shop. Thus a slave was able to carry on his own “business”, paying his master a part of his income as a type of quit-rent.

p But the most important new trend was the increasing number of coloni. Coloni was the name given to those people (usually freemen) who rented plots of land. The practice of renting land had long since existed but during the heyday of the estates run on slave labour it had not developed on anything approaching a mass scale. By now though the landowners and in particular the owners of the salti (large landed estates) had come to the conclusion that instead of employing many hundreds of slaves to till their lands it would be much more to their advantage to divide up their land into small plots and rent these out to the coloni.

p In this way the new pattern of agricultural labour became increasingly widespread. By the end of the second century A.D. 121 the distinction between the coloni and the slaves possessing plots of land or freed slaves (possessing property rights) had almost disappeared. They were to an equal degree dependent on the owners of the salti, lived on separate farms or in villages which had their own workshops, shops and markets, where the tillers of the land used to sell their produce and purchase the goods they required.

During the critical period of the third century when town life had reached a point of stagnation and there was very little money in circulation, the owners of the large estates started to demand their rent in kind. The colonus was now obliged to give his master a set part of his harvest (usually a third) and work on the master’s land for between six and twelve days a year. This marked the beginning of the bondage of the coloni, which was laid down and made law in the fourth century during the reign of the Emperor Constantine. The position of the colonus came to resemble more and more closely that of the serf. However, the work of the colonus in bondage was still an improvement on the work of the slave in a number of respects: the colonus who owned his instruments of labour looked after them more carefully, and since he was obliged to render to his master only a part of his produce he had a greater vested interest in the fruits of his labour. All these factors pointed to the fact that the slave-owner economy and the system of slavery had outlived its time and was bound to be replaced by a new, more efficient form of economy and labour. This was the crux of the profound economic crisis of the Roman slaveholding society.

Christianity

p The Christian religion, which was the ideological expression of the crisis of the Roman Empire emerged in the first century A.D. but spread most rapidly from the end of the second century onwards. The old religion of the Romans with its numerous gods and goddesses, naive beliefs and rituals was no longer adequate to satisfy society’s spiritual requirements. The cult of the emperors—a cult which the emperors themselves were held to lay great store by—was still worse equipped to fill this gap. For this reason a number of Eastern cults started to take root and gain popularity in Rome—that of the Egyptian goddess Isis, the Persian god Mithras and the Hebrew god Yahweh or Jehovah, and last but not least the Christian teaching.

p The founder of this new religion was Jesus of Nazareth, who claimed to be the son of God and the saviour of mankind. The Christian story relates how he was accompanied by disciples, 122 worked miracles and preached to the people; he was later arrested and subjected to a painful and humiliating death on the cross. The legend goes on to tell how on the third day he rose again and ascended into heaven. Such was the story of Jesus Christ’s life on earth as spread by the adherents of the new religion.

p Christianity, which grew up in Palestine and spread to other towns and countries of the Roman Empire, attracted many adherents because of the simplicity of the way of life in the early Christian communities and the belief in a life after death. The Christian communities were joined predominantly by the poorer strata of the population: the poor peasants, freemen and slaves. This aroused extreme suspicion on the part of the imperial authorities, who proceeded to persecute the Christians. Nevertheless the new religion rapidly gained ground.

p A new stage of its development began in the second century, when the Christian communities united under the leadership of the Roman community. The hierarchy of the new religious leadership became more complex—bishops appeared and the office of deacon was inaugurated for those in charge of the communities’ economic affairs. The social composition of the communities also started to change; more and more members of the upper classes of Roman society became converts. In this way a powerful organisation gradually took shape, which was later to be known as the Christian Church. The Roman government and the emperors gradually came to understand that the new religion which called on men to be submissive, give no thought to "the vanities of this world" and promised them reward in heaven for all their sufferings could become a useful tool in their hands.

For this reason the rift between church and state gradually closed and there is nothing surprising about the fact that Christianity eventually became the officially recognised state religion. The dividing line between the spheres of influence of church and state was defined: Christ was acknowledged as the King of Heaven and the Roman Emperor as the Empire’s earthly ruler.

The Dominate

p Despite the now critical state of affairs within the Roman Empire its rulers still succeeded in keeping the ship of state afloat for some time. Indeed, imperial power was consolidated; the state structure which was established in the latter period of the empire was known as the “Dominate” (a name derived from the word dominus meaning lord). This was a state of an openly monarchic character reminiscent of the eastern despotic states. All republican features which had been preserved during the 123 Principate were now abandoned. The Senate was now nothing more than the city council of Rome and court ritual developed along lavish oriental lines.

p A further consolidation of imperial power took place during the reign of Diocletian (284-305), a talented organiser and clear-headed politician. Bearing in mind the separatist leanings of a number of provinces, Diocletian divided the empire into four parts and appointed three co-rulers or colleagues (the tetrarchy). In addition, the whole of the empire was divided up into 101 provinces and various groups of provinces were joined together in larger administrative units called dioceses of which there were twelve.

p Apart from these administrative reforms Diocletian introduced a tax reform, setting up a unified per capita land tax and a fiscal reform, designed to restore the necessary equilibrium in the sphere of money circulation, and finally the famous edict on fixed prices. This edict was the first attempt at state regulation of prices for prime necessities and remuneration of labour ever to be made.

p In the year 305 Diocletian abdicated, and although power still remained formally in the hands of his former colleagues, there inevitably appeared new claimants to the throne. Hostilities broke out between them which gave rise to yet another civil war. From this strife Constantine, the son of one of Diocletian’s colleagues, emerged victorious and reigned from 306 to 337. Constantine had to struggle with his rivals for many years, and when at last he became sole ruler of the Roman Empire, he retained the division of the empire into four parts, although he did away with the tetrarchic system. Each of the tetrarchates was now ruled over by a prefect accountable to the emperor.

p The title of “Great” was bestowed on Constantine by the Christian Church. This emperor was a calculating and crafty ruler, and yet at the same time a far-sighted politician. It was during his reign that the alliance between church and state took shape. Religious toleration was granted to the Christians by the Edict of Milan in 313. From that time on the church became a reliable ally and defender of imperial power, while the emperors became patrons of the church and enriched it with generous grants of land and money.

p On May llth, 330 Constantine transferred the capital of the Roman Empire eastwards to the shores of the Bosporus. The ancient Greek colony of Byzantium was extended and rebuilt, and renamed Constantinople, in honour of the emperor. The transfer of the capital further east was no chance event: the Eastern provinces were richer and culturally more advanced than the Western ones and in practice the economic and cultural 124 centres of the empire had long been in the East. It was a perfectly logical step to transfer the political centre of the empire there as well.

After the death of Constantine, a struggle for the throne broke out once again. For some years power was in the hands of his son Constantius and then passed to his grandson Julian. The reign of the latter is memorable for the fact that Julian attempted to restore the old Roman religion, an undertaking which ended in complete failure.

The Fall of the Western Empire

p A crucial event which contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire was a new great migration of peoples. The initial impetus for this migration was provided by the Huns, probably a nomadic tribe of Mongolian origin, who gradually advanced from the steppe of Central Asia to the shores of the Black Sea in search of pastures and new land. As they advanced, they partly conquered and partly ousted peoples of the Ostrogoth alliance (East Goths), who in their turn put pressure on the Visigoths (or West Goths). Seeking refuge from the Huns, the leaders of the Visigoth tribes turned to the Roman Emperor Valens with a request for permission to cross the Danube and settle within the empire. This permission was granted on condition that the Goths guarded the frontiers of the empire.

p The Goths settled in the provinces of Moesia and Thrace, on the west bank of the Danube. However, their hopes of pursuing a peaceful and tranquil existence were soon cruelly dashed. Before long, Roman administrators and military commanders came to abuse their rights and freedom in all manner of ways. Their wives and children were seized and sold as slaves. Their food supply was inadequate and there were frequent outbreaks of famine among the Gothic tribes. These factors led to the outbreak of a revolt in the year 377. The revolt spread like wildfire and the Emperor Valens led the Roman army out to put it down. In the year 378 a great battle was fought at Adrianople which ended in a crushing defeat for the Romans, and in the course of which the emperor was killed.

p The war with the Goths continued for a number of years. They were finally defeated only by one of Valens’ successors Theodosius who reigned from 379 to 395. In his reign the eastern and western parts of the empire were reunited for the last time. Theodosius’ reign also saw the final victory of the Christian religion, when it became not only the state religion but the only recognised one. Theodosius’ edicts forbade sacrifices and decreed 125 that no more subsidies should be made to the Roman temples, whose land was then confiscated. In some cities of the empire such as Alexandria, massacres of the adherents of the old Roman religion were organised.

p After the death of Theodosius, the empire was divided into two parts once and for all. The Eastern Empire, which came to be known as Byzantium, was to exist as a united state until the middle of the fifteenth century. The Western Empire, on the other hand, already weakened by internal crises, was unable to resist the increasing pressure from the barbarian tribes.

p At the beginning of the fifth century the Goths attacked Rome. Led by Alaric, they invaded Italy and laid siege to the Eternal City. Famine soon broke out and the Senate started negotiations with Alaric. However, unsatisfied with the manner in which events were progressing, Alaric marched into Rome on August 24th, 410. The gates of the city were opened by the slaves who went over to the side of the conquerors.

p The impact made by this conquest of the city was tremendous. It was the first time since the Gauls had sacked Rome at the very dawn of its history that the "Eternal City”, the "light of the earth" had fallen into the hands of the barbarians.

p The next fifty or sixty years were marked by an almost uninterrupted series of barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire and a number of barbarian kingdoms were even set up on Roman territory. In 429 the Vandals conquered the North African provinces, in the year 455 the Vandal King Genseric subjugated Italy and razed Rome to the ground, and in 449 Britain was invaded by the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Meanwhile a great federation of barbarian tribes under the Hun ruler Attila was set up along the Danube. First of all the Huns ravaged the Balkan peninsula and then marched on Gaul. In 451 at Chalons the "battle of the nations" took place, when the Huns were defeated by a mixed army of Romans and barbarians—Franks, Goths and Burgundians. After this defeat Attila withdrew beyond the Rhine, but the next year he invaded northern Italy once more. However, soon afterwards he died (453) and the Hun alliance perished with him.

The Western Empire had virtually ceased to exist. Italy was devastated and Rome was no more than a provincial town. In the forum where once the fate of the world had been decided grass grew up and pigs were turned out to graze. The Western emperors were now insignificant pawns in the hands of the leaders of the barbarian armies. In the year 476, one of the latter—Odoacer, leader of the Germanic mercenaries, deposed the last emperor Romulus Augustulus and set himself up as regent of the Eastern Emperor in Italy. Thus even the formal existence of 126 the Western Empire had come to an end. The year 476 is conventionally held to mark the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

The Historical Significance of the Fall
of the Western Empire

The historical significance of the fall of the Western Empire lies of course not in the fact that the last, and incidentally in no way remarkable, emperor was overthrown, but in the collapse of this enormous slave-holding society, of a state based on a slave economy. This type of political structure and economic system had now outlived its day and it was for this reason that the Roman Empire, already internally weak after the profound social crisis of the third century, was not able to avert the increasing pressure from its barbarian enemies. The economic basis of Roman society was already undermined by the third century when colonate system took root and gradually ousted slave labour. However, as a political unit the Roman Empire proved itself to be sufficiently strong to survive this crisis for the time being. A further one and a half centuries of class conflict within the empire and of constant pressure on its frontiers were required before the last citadel of the slave-holding society fell, and with it the slave economy and the power of the slave-owning nobles and landowners. In this lies the historical significance of the fall of the Western Roman Empire.