[introduction.]

p The cradle of the Roman state was the Apennine peninsula in the central Mediterranean, which together with the nearby island of Sicily forms as it were a natural bridge between Europe and Africa. The coast of the Apennine peninsula is less indented than that of the Balkan peninsula and has less sheltered bays and gulfs. The islands off the shores of Italy are less numerous and varied than those in the Aegean.

p Although the Apennine peninsula is a mountainous country like Greece, there is only a single mountain range down the centre, which is bordered on either side by broad valleys suitable both for arable and livestock farming. The soil in Italy is much better suited to farming than that of Greece and in ancient times Italy was always regarded as a typical agrarian country. Her main natural resources were timber and metals (particularly copper and tin).

In ancient times the Apennine peninsula was inhabited by a great variety of peoples. Here we shall refer only to the main groups of tribes. In the north lived various Celtic (or Gallic) tribes. Somewhat further south came the Etruscans, a people who played an important role in early Italian history. The centre of the peninsula was peopled by numerous Italic tribes, including the Latins in whose territory the city of Rome was situated. Finally, in the south the Greek elements predominated and there were a large number of Greek colonies—many of them rich, flourishing cities—so that the name "Magna Graecia" (Greater Greece) was applied to southern Italy and the island of Sicily.

The Etruscan Riddle

p The most mysterious of these peoples and tribes inhabiting Italy were the Etruscans. Their origin remains an unsolved riddle to this day. At one time the Etruscans had been a powerful people 88 and had extended their hegemony to almost the whole of the peninsula (seventh-sixth centuries B.C.). Ruins of large Etruscan cities, fortress walls, noblemen’s houses and rich tombs can still be seen today.

p Archaeological finds suggest that the Etruscans were a predominantly agricultural people. Etruscan craftsmen were also famous for their metalwork, mirrors and vases, golden and ivory ornaments. They carried on brisk sea trade with the Greeks, the Egyptians and other peoples. In those days maritime trade went hand in hand with piracy and the Etruscan pirates were feared throughout the Mediterranean.

The Etruscans of the fourth century B.C. were a slave-holding people with a king and nobility, and a large population of slaves and vassal peasants. At the height of Etruscan power an alliance was concluded between twelve of their cities.

p Rome had already been founded but was under Etruscan domination. In the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. a dynasty of Etruscan kings ruled Rome, and the city’s population included many Etruscan craftsmen; Etruscan customs and rites held sway in Roman social and home life for many years afterwards.

p However, Etruscan power soon began to wane. At the end of the sixth century B.C. internecine war between the Etruscan cities flared up and the Etruscans also suffered a number of serious setbacks in conflicts with the Greeks in southern Italy. The final blow was dealt to the Etruscan kingdom by a successful uprising of the Italic tribes led by Rome.

Apart from utensils and works of art archaeological excavations have brought to light a large number of Etruscan inscriptions (about nine thousand in all). However, so far attempts to decipher them have met with very limited success and thus the language of the Etruscans, the problem of their origin and many details of their fascinating history still await clarification.

The Founding of Rome

p How and when was Rome founded, the city referred to as “eternal” even by the ancients, and whose lot it was to play such an illustrious role? No satisfactory answer can be given to this question, and we are obliged to fall back on the famous legend of the ancients. This tells how one of the kings of the town of Alba Longa was ousted from the throne by his brother, his daughter, Rhea Silvia, being made a vestal virgin and thus obliged to take a vow of celibacy. Nevertheless, Rhea Silvia shortly gave birth to twin boys, and the wrathful king commanded that they be drowned. A slave carried them to the river in a basket and set it on the water. However, they did not drown but were cast ashore under a fig tree where a wolf found them and suckled them. The children were then taken in by a shepherd, who reared them and named them Romulus and Remus.

When the twins grew up the secret of their birth soon spread abroad. In Alba Longa they overthrew the usurper, put their grandfather back on the throne, and asked his permission to found a new city. At the time of founding this city the two brothers had a bitter quarrel and Romulus slew Remus. This was the legend of the founding of Rome, the city named after Romulus, and of which he became the first king. According to ancient Roman historians the city was founded on April 21, 753 B.C. However, this date cannot be vouched for and should only be regarded as a rough guide.

The Kingdom of Rome

p The early period of Roman history is often referred to as the time of the kings since according to Roman tradition the city was then a monarchy. There were six kings after Romulus, the last three descendants of the Etruscan tribe of Tarquins. During their reign Rome became a sizable city and succeeded in conquering the whole of Latium.

p The last but one king of Rome, Servius Tullius, went down in history as the introducer of a famous social reform, according to 90 which the whole of the Roman population and territory was divided up into four districts or tribes. The population was also divided into five classes, according to property and income. The poorest citizens were outside these categories altogether and were known as proletarii.

p Military conscription and the political rights enjoyed by these classes varied considerably. Since every citizen was obliged to obtain weapons at his own expense, it was naturally only members of the highest class who were able to equip themselves with a complete set of heavy armour (sword, shield, spear, and suit of armour) and keep a horse. This class provided the majority of the centurias for the national levy, and also enjoyed all the political privileges. At the Popular Assembly the people were represented by the centurias and each centuria had one vote. Since the majority of the centurias were provided by the highest social class, this class could always rely on a majority of votes in the assembly.

At the end of the sixth century B.C. the political pattern of life in Rome changed. The last king known as Tarquin the Proud, because of his arrogance and tyrannical inclinations, was banished and the monarchy was abolished. This event is assumed to have coincided with the victorious uprising against Etruscan rule. A republic, destined to have a long history, was established in Rome.