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Object of Reference Relationships

Object of Reference Relationships, an individual or group as a basic structural element of reference relationships, to which their subject consciously or unconsciously refers himself, accepting and actualising in his behaviour the standards, norms, and values of the object, or by orienting himself to those relations (see Referentiality). One should distinguish positive and negative O’s of R.R. An object with whose values and behavioural standards the subject of reference relations actively “disagrees” is commonly regarded as the negative O. of R.R. In this case, he would behave as if he seeks to be condemned by the O. of R.R. for his behaviour. An object whose values and behavioural standards are reference-points for the

subject, whose “approval” he apparently seeks to obtain, is considered a positive O. of R.R.

Object-Reflecting Relationships

Object-Reflecting Relationships, an interiorised (see Interiorisation) system of an individual’s reflexive associations with other people (see Reflexion) based on the ability to mentally reflect the attitudes of the “other”, and others’ notions about the peculiarities of one’s own vision of a given thing (object or probfem). O.-R.R. are a component of a person’s cognitive activity. Reconstruction of other persons’ views concerning a given object allows to perceive new aspects therein, stimulates critical thinking, and allows to reflect in the form of an inner dialogue with significant other persons. The major characteristics of O.-R.R. are as follows: (1) adequacy, i.e. accurate reproduction of the “ viewpoint” of another person about the object of reflexion; (2) depth, determined as the number of simultaneously reproduced and correlated objective attitudes; and (3) orientation, representing dominant reference groups (see Group, Reference), whose objective attitudes become the main object of reflexion in a given situation. O.-R.R. are a qualitatively specific level of interiorised interpersonal relations mediated by the object of joint activities. The forming of O.-R.R. is prevented by an individual’s egocentric position in interaction (see Egocentrism), and by projection of his own ideas to other people. An individual’s interest in the objective position of other people in the course 202 of collective activity is a major prerequisite for greater O.-R.R. adequacy.

Object-Related Activity Approach

Object-Related Activity Approach (to studying man’s psyche), (1) a study of man’s psyche based on Marx’s category of object-related activity (Mikhail Bassov, Sergei Rubinstein, Alexei Leontyev, and their disciples); (2) the theory which views psychology as a field dealing with the origins, functioning and structure of psychic reflection in the process of man’s activity (Leontyev). The analysis of the transformation of psychological reflection in the process of activity studied in its phyiogenetic (see Phylogenesis), historical, ontogenetic (see Ontogenesis) and functional development serve as an initial method of studying psyche. The basic principles of O.-R.A.A. are: development and historicism, object relation; activeness including situationally (see Activeness, Situationally Independent) activeness as a specific feature of man’s mind; interiorisation-exteriorisation as mechanisms of acquiring sociohistorical experience; unity of the external and internal structures of activity; the systems analysis of psyche; the dependence of psychic reflection on the position of the reflected object in the structure of activity. In the context of O.-R.A.A., psychologists have singled out criteria for the emergence of psyche as well as the stages of psyche development in phylogenesis, and elaborated the following conceptions: on the leading activity as the basic and driving force of the development of psyche in ontogenesis; on assimilation as an imageforming pattern; on the structure of activity (activity, action, operation, psychophysiological functional systems); on the meaning, personalised meaning and senses as forming factors of consciousness; on the hierarchy of motives and personalised meanings as personality-forming units. O.-R.A.A. serves as a concrete and scientific methodology in specific branches of psychology (developmental, pedagogical, engineering, medical, social, etc).

Object-Value Unity of a Collective

Object-Value Unity of a Collective, normative integration of individual activities in a group, when each activity is determined by a common value essence of the object of joint activities. O.-V.U. of C., a major component of social group integration as the aggregate subject of activity, manifests itself in close value judgements of group members about the object (goal) of their joint activities, and also in the unity of implementation (actualisation) of those ideas in concrete activity. O.-V.U. of C. is naturally engendered by sociallyconditioned joint activities, and may be regarded as a manifestation of the maximal development of collective integration (see Value-Orientation Unity).

Observation

Observation, a principal empirical methods in psychological research, which involves systematic and purposeful perception of behavioural or mental phenomena aimed at studying 203 their specific changes in certain conditions and to finding their meaning. O. includes elements of theoretical thinking (idea, methodological procedures, interpretation and control of results) and quantitative analytical methods [scaling, data factorisation (see Factor Analysis), etc.]. Accuracy in specification of observational data would depend on the state of knowledge in a given field and on the task to be resolved. The observer’s experience and skills would substantially affect the results of O. In psychological interpretation of human behaviour, the observer’s past experience is not restricted to his scientific concepts, but includes his common sense stereotypes, attitudes, value orientations, etc. Despite all precautions, observation is always influenced by certain subjectivity; it may create an attitude facilitating observation of a significant fact, which might cause experimenter’s demand. Awareness of dangers of premature generalisations and hurried conclusions, repeated O., and control by other research methods contribute to the objectivity of O.

Obsessions

Obsessions, a variety of obsessive states expressed in emotions and actions that do not require specific situations to arise (e.g. obsessive desire to wash one’s hands, fear of the number "6" because the word “cancer” has six letters, fear to step on a line, etc.). The synonym for O’s is “anancasms”. O’s are observed in many patients characterised by scrupulousness, pedantism, tendency towards formalism along with spiritual inertness and anxious diffidence.

Obsessive States

Obsessive States, involuntary, distressing thoughts, ideas or stimulations to action, which suddenly appear in consciousness and are perceived by the individual as alien and emotionally disturbing. The term was introduced in 1868 by the German psychiatrist Richard von Kraft-Ebing. Even though the patient often regards O.S. as morbid and interfering he cannot overcome them. For instance, in case of an obsessive fear of catching a disease, when a patient would continually wash his hands till literally "washing them off" he understands that his fear is illogical and that it is silly to do that or other similar things but still persists in doing them to alleviate internal mental stress underlying his O.S. O.S. are manifest in the intellectual, emotional (phobias) and motor spheres. They are the main symptom in certain types of neurosis, and are also encountered in schizophrenia, psychopathy, and organic lesions of the brain. Sometimes they develop in healthy individuals in the state of tiredness or anxiety. The defensiveadaptive mechanism of various O.S. is explained by the fact that, initially, an amorphous, pointless affective tension would turn into definite O.S. which would allow the patient to lower the level of his inner stress, albeit the very content of O.S. may be highly tormenting. Hence, it is not advisable to “break” "obsessive shields" with large doses of neuroleptics (see Psychopharmacology), for this would help strengthen and "let out" a purely affective disorder (acute anxiety or anguish). 204 In severe forms of O.S. patients are found to have paradoxical forms of response: maximally intensified defence reactions against imaginary hazards with concomitant sharp alleviation of adequate instinctive forms of response to really harmful factors or dangers. For instance, patients with various O.S. may react calmly to the fact that some malignant disease has been detected in them.

Obstinacy

Obstinacy, a feature of behaviour (in stable form, a trait of character) representing a shortcoming in the individual’s volitional sphere, manifesting itself in the desire to act by all means as one would, in spite of reasonable arguments, requests, counsel, or instructions by other people. O. may be caused by feelings of offence, spite, anger, or vengeance. In children, O. may be a form of protest to show discontent with unjustified suppression of their growing independence and initiative.

Oedipus Complex

Oedipus Complex, a central Freudian concept; a complex of ideas and feelings, chiefly unconscious, arising in early childhood and involving a sexual drive towards the parent of the opposite sex and the desire to physically eliminate the parent of the same sex. O.C. causes the individual to feel guilt and this feeling leads to a conflict in the sphere of the unconscious. The conflict is resolved by identifying oneself with the parent of the same sex, and leads the individual to normal sexuality. The term O.C. was coined after King Oedipus, a hero of a Greek myth who killed his father and married his mother, unaware that they were his parents. According to Freud, O.C. in girls corresponds to the Electra Complex ( according to a myth, Electra killed her mother to avenge her father’s death). O.C. shows Freudianism’s general tendency to universalise some specific mental disorders.

Oligophrenopsychology

Oligophrenopsychology, a branch of special psychology which studies mental development and possibilities for its correction in people with severe forms of brain deficiency. O. reveals the causes of their mental retardation (the inborn defects of the nervous system, the result of a disease or trauma), studies their psychic features, forms and degrees of said defects (morons— mild retardation; imbeciles—moderate retardation; and idiots—severe retardation), and helps develop programmes and methods for teaching those persons in special schools.

Ontogenesis (Ontogeny)

Ontogenesis (Ontogeny), the development of an individual organism. In psychology, O. is the process of formation of the basic structures of individual psyche throughout childhood. The study of O. is the principle task of child psychology (see Developmental Psychology) . From the viewpoint of Soviet psychology, O. chiefly deals with child’s object-related activity and communication (1), primarily with regard to activity and communication (1) with adults. In the course of interiorisation, the child “implants”, “ appropriates” social sign-symbol structures and means of that activity and 205 communication (1) to thereby form his consciousness and personality. Soviet psychologists also hold a common view that O. is a social process realised under the active and purposeful influence of society.

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning, a term introduced by the US psychologist Burrhus Skinner to designate a special way in which conditioned relationships (see Conditioned Reflex) form. Unlike the classic (Pavlov’s) way, which Skinner called respondent, in O.C. the animal first makes a certain movement (spontaneous or initiated by experimenter) and then receives a reinforcement. Skinner makes this distinction irrespective of the biological meaning of conditioned reflexes. In this case, he fails to take into account the highly important role of the animal’s active orientating activity, by means of which the former defines a situation and establishes meaningful relationships between environmental elements and its own movements, which largely predetermines the course and dynamics of conditioned reflexes.

Operation

Operation, a unit of activity; a way of performing an action as determined by the existing (external or mental) situation. O. as a concept was introduced by Alexei N. Leontyev, and is used in studying relatively complete and, as a rule, automatic perceptual, motor, mnemonic and intellectual acts composing a given action. Unlike activity and action, O. is determined not by motives and goals, but by conditions of an objective situation in which various socially developed patterns of behaviour (for instance, patterns of using tools or definite rules of etiquette accepted in a given culture) are exteriorised in the form of meanings, the said patterns fully conditioning the substance of O. Depending on the origin, two types of O. are distinguished, namely, adaptive and conscious. Adaptive O’s are retroactive responces, hierarchically the lowest in the structure of the subject’s activity. They arise in the course of involuntary imitation of or adaptation to objective conditions in a given situation, e.g. adaptation of a child to language conditions, as a result of which he learns various grammatical forms used in oral communication (1). Adaptive O’s are characterised by three distinctive features: (a) involuntary with regard to regulation; (b) initially unconscious with regard to the level of awareness; and (c) rigid with regard to their dynamics. Conscious O’s result from automatic actions. When an action is repeated many times (for instance, in teaching how to drive a car or to write), its purpose, first realised by the subject, would, in the structure of another more complex action, be a condition for its performance. Due to the changed position of purpose in the structure of activity, to the shift of - the purpose to a condition that had occurred when the action was automatic, this action turns into a conscious O. Conscious O’s are subject to voluntary control; with regard to the level of awareness, they are secondarily unconscious (but may be realised when difficulties arise in the course of their execution); and 206 with regard to their dynamics, they are flexible (labile). A stable and purposeful course of a given O. would be determined by the attitude.

Opponent Set

Opponent Set, a set of "significant others", polemics with whom regulates the subject’s creative activity. To find out the O.S. is an important condition for socio-psychological analysis of the dynamics of creative activity and its dependence on interpersonal relations (Mikhail Yaroshevsky).

Orientating Activity

Orientating Activity, a set of actions aimed at active orientation in a specific situation, at analysing it and behaviour planning. The term "O.A." goes back to Ivan Pavlov, who distinguished the orientating reflex from a number of other reflexes as a special form of organism activeness and indicated its specific function (to establish a relationship between signal, reaction, and reinforcement), and the "biological prudence" resulting from this reflex. We distinguish orientating reflex proper (adjustment of analysers to better irritant perception and inhibition of preceding activity) and orientating (orientating-research) activity. The basic and most general tasks of O.A. are: analysis of a problem situation, establishment of relationship between the situation elements and their actual meanings, elaboration of a plan of action, and in the course of implementing that action, accomplishment of its control and correction. An essential condition for performing O.A. is the presence of various forms of psychic reflection which, being included in the structure of O.A., ensure the actualisation of its functions, namely, preparation, regulation and control of a subject’s behaviour in individually varying situations. Human O.A. essentially differs from animal O.A. in that in planning and regulating his behaviour a human being relies on knowledge accumulated by society about objects and ways of handling them, about their social meaning and social forms of relationships.

Orientating Basis of Action

Orientating Basis of Action, a system of personal representations about the goal, plan and means for performing a future or current action. The term was introduced by Pyotr Galperin (see Stepwise Forming of Mental Actions, Concept of). O.B. of A. largely predetermines the quality of an action. For instance, complete O.B. of A. ensures systematic correct performance of an action in a preset range of situations. O.B. of A. should be distinguished from the scheme of O.B. of A. as a set of reference points and instructions suggested to a given subject. The form and way of setting the scheme of O.B. of A. would depend on teaching purposes and the students’ age and individual traits. Three types of scheme of O.B. of A. and, correspondingly, three types of teaching are to be distinguished. With the first type, the subject deals with a basically incomplete system of conditions, and is compelled to complete it with the help of the trial and error method; the final action structure is formed slowly and is understood far from always and 207 fully; individual indicators are highly dispersed, and the formed action highly sensitive to interference. With the second type, the subject orients to a complete system of reference points and takes into consideration the entire system of conditions for performing the action correctly, which guarantees its faultlessness from the very outset. In this case, the scheme of O.B. of A. is either set in ready form, or developed by the students together with the instructor. The third type of teaching is characterised by a person’s complete orientation to the structural principles of the material under study, to its component units, and to their combination laws, not to the conditions in which a concrete action is achieved. Such O.B. of A. ensures exhaustive analysis of the material under study and the forming of cognitive motivation.

Orientating Reaction

Orientating Reaction, see Orientating Reflex.

Orientating Reflex

Orientating Reflex, a complex reaction by animals and humans to a stimulus novelty, which Ivan Pavlov termed the "what is it?" reflex. The biological purpose of O.R. is to create conditions for better irritant perception. This is achieved through a complex of somatic, vegetative reactions and through a change in the activation level of the central nervous system at general inhibition or disturbance of the current activity of an organism. Three principal groups of O.R. components are distinguished: (1) locomotor; (2) vegetative; (3) changed activation level of the central nervous system. The following relate to the locomotor components of O.R.; (1) reactions that ensure turning of the eyes in the direction of the visual irritants, pricking up of the ears, and sniffing; (2) reactions ensuring a given posture and approach to the stimulus. The vegetative components of O.R. include vascular reactions in the form of constriction of extremity vessels and dilation of cerebral vessels that ensure increase of blood circulation in the brain, the galvanic skin response (GSR), and changes in the heart and respiration rate. Apart from stimulus novelty, the following exciters of the O.R. are distinguished: stimulus range, ambiguity, and/or some, amazing quality. When the stimulus and the trace previously left by other stimuli (see Nervous Model of Stimulus) coincide, O.R. does not occur. As the new stimulus causing O.R. is repeated, the latter is extinguished.