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Need (in psychology)

Need (in psychology), an individual’s state created by his necessity in objects essential for his existence and development. N. is the source of human activity. In human history, N’s as the function of man’s activity result from development of production. In this case, a natural object is no longer merely a catch, i.e. a thing with solely the biological significance of food. By means of labour implements, man can modify that object to adapt it to his own N’s. In this way, human necessities can also develop, i.e. become the element of history. Production is connected with man through N’s, not directly. Animal, organic N’s transform into human, “extraorganic” N’s mediated by objective activity. N. is both the premise and result of not only human labour activity per se, but of cognitive processes as well. It is for that reason that N. causes personal states instrumental in controlling behaviour and determining the course of human thinking, sentiments, and will. Human N’s depend on the individual’s education in the broad sense of the word, i.e. on the extent to which he is familiar with human culture, represented both objectively (in material N’s) and functionally (in intellectual N’s). The difference between these forms of culture and, consequently, between material and intellectual N’s, is relative and determined by development of production. Satisfaction by man of his N’s is, in effect, a process whereby he acquires a given form of activity conditioned by social development. In this case, "the satisfaction of the first need, the action of satisfying and the instrument of satisfaction which has been acquired, leads to new needs, and this creation of new needs is the first historical act." (K. Marx, F. Engels, Collected Works, Vol. 5, p. 42). The social characteristics of human N’s are likewise derivatives of this structure of labour activity. Inasmuch as the process of satisfying one’s N’s takes on the form of purposeful activity, they are the source of a person’s activeness (see Activeness of Personality). In subjectively comprehending the goal as his N., an individual becomes convinced that the N. can be satisfied only by achieving the goal. This allows him to correlate the subjective ideas of his N. with its objective contents by looking for means to gain that goal as an object. N’s reveal themselves in motives (drives, desires, etc.) by prompting a man to activity and becoming a form through which they manifest themselves. Whereas in N’s human activity is essentially dependent on their objective social essence, in motives that dependence is seen in the form of the subject’s own activeness. Hence, the system of motives revealing themselves in individual behaviour is more characteristic and mobile than the N. that constitutes its essence. Forstering N’s inherent in the man of socialist society is the central task in educating personality under developed socialism.

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Negativism

Negativism, unmotivated behaviour of a subject, expressed in actions intentionally opposite to the requirements and expectations of other individuals or social groups. As a situational reaction or personal feature (with the exception of clinical cases of senseless resistance), N. is caused by the subject’s need to assert himself or herself, to protect his or her ego, and is also the result of egotism and alienation from the needs and interests of other people. Psychologically, N. is based on’ the subject’s attitude to negation of specific requirements, expectations, and forms of communication among members of the given social group. It is a predisposition to protest against that group, and to repudiate the given personality as such. Situational negativist reactions are observed in children during “crises” of growth and are manifested in stubbornness, capricious behaviour, and senseless demands.

Neobehaviourism

Neobehaviourism, a trend in US psychology developed in the 1930s. Neobehaviourists accepted the main postulate of behaviourism, according to which psychology studies the objectively observed reactions of the organism to environmental stimuli, and supplemented it with the concept of intervening variables as factors that serve as a conditioning link between stimuli effects and reactive muscle movements. In line with the methodology of operationalism, neobehaviourists thought that the substance of the concept "intervening variables" defining the “unobservable” cognitive and motivational (see Motivation) components of behaviour is revealed in laboratory experiments by indicators contained in the researcher’s operations. N. was indicative of the crisis of “classical” behaviourism, which could not explain the integrity and purposefulness of behaviour, its controllability by information about the surrounding world, and its dependence on the needs of the organism. Using the ideas of Gestalt psychology and Freudianism (Edward Tolman), and also Pavlov’s teaching on higher nervous activity (Clark Hull), neobehaviourists sought to overcome the restricted nature of the original behaviourist doctrine. Yet they preserved its postulate aimed at biologising human mentality.

Neo-Freudianism

Neo-Freudianism, a psychological trend whose advocates try to overcome the biologism of classic Freudianism and introduce its basic tenets into a social context. Among the better known representatives of neo-Freudianism are Karen Homey, Erich Fromm, and Harry Sullivan (all from the United States). According to Homey, neuroses are caused by anxiety which arises in a child when encountering a hostile environment, and anxiety that grows stronger when his parents and other people do not provide him with enough love and attention. Fromm explains neuroses by the individual’s inability to achieve harmony with the social structure of modern society, which allegedly forms in the individual a feeling of loneliness and alienation from his fellow men and gives rise to neurotic ways for ridding himself 198 of that feeling. Sullivan sees the source of neuroses in worry states that arise in interpersonal relationships. Despite its apparent attention towards factors of social life, N.-F. regards the individual with his unconscious inclinations as primordially independent of and conflicting with society. Besides, it regards society as a source of "general alienation" and as hostile to the fundamental tendencies of personality development.

Nervous Model of Stimulus

Nervous Model of Stimulus, a configuration of the trace left in the nervous system by a repeated irritant with fixed parameters. The concept of N.M. of S. was suggested by Yevgeni Sokolov. After the multiple repetition of a stimulus, one observes selective extination of an orientating reflex only to that stimulus. The nervous system responds to change of any stimulus parameter (distribution in time and space, intensity, colour, etc.), by a more intense orientating reflex. N.M. of S. performs the function of a selfadjusting, multi-dimensional filter which selectively suppresses the orientating reflex to a recurring stimulus.

Nervous System

Nervous System, a totality of nerve formations in animals and humans with which they perceive the irritants that act on the body, work off the excitations occurring therewith, and develop reactions. The N.S. ensures the functioning of the organism as a single whole. It includes the central, peripheral and vegetative N.S’s. The central N.S. consists of nerve tissues of the brain and spinal cord, whose main elements are nerve cells, neurons. The peripheral N.S. is represented by afferent (sensitive) nerves that conduct impulses from receptors (units that serve to turn optical, mechanical, chemical, and heat energy of the external and internal media into nervous impulses) to the central N.S., and by efferent (motor) nerves that conduct impulses from the central N.S. to the skeletal muscles. The vegetative N.S. services internal organ muscles and glands. The activity of the central N.S. is subordinate to the reflex principle. A reflex is a reaction to receptor excitations. Depending on irritation intensity, the frequency of nervous impulses from the receptors would change. A reflex of a normal animal, e.g. one oriented in response to environmental changes, is achieved via the cortex and constitutes the integral reaction of the whole organism. This reaction is associated with inhibition of other nerve mechanisms. The mechanism of inverse afferentation from vital organs, viz. the information about reaction results, plays an important role in rendering the reaction normal. The nature of a reflex reaction is determined not only by anatomic factors, but also by the functional state of the central N.S. if some nerve centre is in a state of hyper excitation, a stimulation may primarily excite that centre by the dominant principle. Reflexes are classified into innate (unconditioned) and those acquired in individual life (conditioned) (see Unconditioned Reflex, Conditioned Reflex). Conditioned reflexes come 199 out as a central psychological phenomenon in the function of the cortex and signify the development of new (temporary) associations. If a repeated irritation does not serve to satisfy some vital need, the reaction thereto would attenuate and disappear. Cortical inhibition underlies this attenuation. The cortex performs various forms of mental activities.

Neurolinguistics

Neurolinguistics, a branch of psychological science marginal with psychology, neurology and linguistics, which studies the brain mechanisms of speech and the changes in speech processes that arise as a result of local brain lesion. The forming of N. as a discipline is linked with the development of neuropsychology, on the one hand, and linguistics and psycholinguistics, on the other. In line with the concepts of contemporary neuropsychology, N. regards speech as a systems function, and aphasia as a systems disorder involving the primary defect and secondary disturbances occurring as a result of the primary defect, and also owing to functional reconstructions of the work of the brain aimed at compensating the impaired function. The current stage in the development of N. is connected with the works of Alexander Luria and his followers, who combined the systems analysis of speech disturbances with theoretical linguistic and psych olinguistic concepts (for instance, the phoneme theory of Jan Baudoin de Courtenay, Nikolai Trubetskoy, Lev Shcherba and others.

Neuron

Neuron, a nerve cell with all its extensions, the main structural unit of the nervous system. N. consists of a body, ramified extensions (dendrites), and a long extension (axone), and also of terminal systems. N.’s main function is to "generate excitation, which is conducted by the axone in the form of short-term electric signals, nervous impulses.

Neuropsychology

Neuropsychology, a branch of psychological science marginal with psychology, medicine (neurology and neurosurgery) and psychology. N. studies the brain mechanisms of higher mental junctions with reference to local lesions of the brain (see Compensation of Mental Functions). Alexander Luria, the founder of neuropsychology in the USSR, developed the ideas of Lev Vygotsky about the social determination and systems structure of higher mental functions and produced a theory of the systems dynamic localisation of mental processes (see Localisation of Higher Mental Functions) , which is the theoretical foundation of N. Contemporary N. is subdivided into several branches: clinical, rehabilitational, experimental, psychophysiological, and children’s. N. uses a syndrome analysis of disturbances in higher mental functions to qualify these disorders and diagnose brain lesions. The analytical methods developed by Luria represent a set of special tests with reference to various cognitive processes (different types of perception, memory, speech functions, and thinking), and arbitrary motions and actions. These methods were used   200 to study various neuropsychological syndromes, the stable combinations of disorders of higher mental functions in lesions of various brain structures. N. has major significance for developing the general methodological and theoretical foundations of psychological research, and for diagnosing local lesions of the brain and resuscitating its impaired functions.

Neuroses, Clinical

Neuroses, Clinical, a basic form of neuropsychic disorders. N.,C. are caused by the so-called neurotic conflict, which involves a disturbance of human vital and meaningful relationships originating from childhood and activating in situations that cause mental traumas. In neuroses, organic changes in the brain are mostly absent. Three basic forms of N.,C. are distinguished, namely neurasthenia (nervous exhaustion), hysteria, and neurosis of obsessive states. Neurasthenia, being accompanied by physical exhaustion, is characterised by disturbed functions of the vegetative nervous system, hyper irritation, fatigue, lacrimation, and feelings of gloom and inadequacy (see Depression). The hysteric forms of N.,C. are extremely diverse and often take the form of diseases, such as paralyses, various seizures, impaired pain sensibility and coordination of movements, stammering, various speech disturbances (ranging from aphasia to total muteness), etc. Deep forms of hysteric N.,C. may turn into psychotic disorders accompanied by deliration. Neurosis of obsessive states is characterised by the appearance, following some severe mental trauma, of various obsessions, phobias, increased anxiety, depressed states, and various vegetative disturbances. Methods of treatment of N.,C. are based on a combination of pharmacological therapy with various kinds of psychotherapy, viz. pathogenic, behavioural, group, etc. The contemporary theory of N.,C. recognises the multifactor nature of these diseases, but at the same time underlines the leading role of psychological aspects in their origin and treatment.

Neurosis, Experimental

Neurosis, Experimental, a state induced in animals under special conditions of a physiological experiment and characterised by disturbed adaptive behaviour, incapability to develop new and repeat old conditioned reflexes, refusal to eat, vegetative disorders, and sleep disturbance. Being a model of clinical neuroses in human beings, N.,E. is used to study the mechanisms of higher nervous activity.

Neuroticism

Neuroticism, a state characterised by emotional instability, anxiety, low selfrespect, and vegetative’ disorders. N. should not be identified with neurosis, since neurotic symptoms may be shown by healthy individuals, too. N. is generally assessed by special scales or personality inventories.

Next Development Zone

Next Development Zone, the difference in the level of difficulty of tasks solved by a child independently (the present level of development) and under the supervision of an adult. This concept was introduced by Lev 201 Vygotsky, who showed that the real correlation between mental development and the ability to learn can be revealed by establishing the existent, development level of the child and his N.D.Z. Creating the N.D.Z. in education “brings” development; education is only effective when it “leads” development. The notion "N.D.Z." served as a basis for the concept of the correlation of education and mental development of the child in Soviet developmental and pedagogic psychology.

Novelty Effect

Novelty Effect, see Recency Effect.