Engels, Frederick (November 28, 1820- August 5, 1895), revolutionary and thinker of genius, one of the founders of scientific communism, friend and close companion of Marx (see Marx, Karl). Engels, the son of a textile manufacturer, was born in Barmen (subsequently Wuppertal, Rhine Province of Prussia). In 1837, at his father’s insistence, Engels left school and began business training in his father’s office, and then at the wholesale export firm of H. Leupold. The young Engels concentrated on literature and journalism. He studied foreign languages on his own. The spread of opposition sentiments in the Rhine Province against Prussian absolutism led to the early awakening of Engels’s political consciousness and revolutionary- democratic outlook. In mid-November 1842, Engels went to Manchester in Britain for commercial practice at a cotton- spinning mill which his father co-owned. It was in Cologne at the office of the Rheinische Zeitung, that he first met Marx. His two-year stay in Britain and acquaintance with the developed workers’ movement played a big role in forming Engels’s social, political and philosophical outlook and his acceptance of materialism and proletarian communism. In his articles from England (the end of 1842) for the Rheinische Zeitung Engels first advanced the idea of a social revolution, which he believed the British proletariat would accomplish. In the work "Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy" published in the journal Deutsch-Franzosische Jahrbiicher in February 1844, Engels made his first criticism of the capitalist mode of production and bourgeois political economy from the position of incipient scientific socialism. Here Engels showed the illegitimacy of capitalist private property as the foundation of the entire material and cultural life of society. This was closely tied up with a critique of capitalist competition as the regulator of social production and with the analysis of the antagonistic contradictions 121 of bourgeois society. Engels also tried to reveal the operation of the most important categories of political economy—value, land rent and science as the spiritual component of production, in a communist society. This was essentially the first attempt to forecast the communist economy, which Engels subsequently developed in his Anti-Diihring on the basis of Marx’s research. The Outlines stimulated Marx’s work on political economy which he began in the autumn of 1843. Engels’s many years of cooperation with Marx began at the end of August 1844. Its prime thrust was the elaboration of the dialectico-materialist conception of history. The Holy Family (1845) was a landmark on this road. In this joint work, Marx and Engels precisely formulated the idea of the historic role of the proletariat which history had assigned to abolish private property and build a new society. In his Speeches in Elberfeld (February 1845) Engels proved the historical and economic necessity of communism. In The Condition of the Working-Class in England (1845) Engels first revealed several laws of capitalist production (the periodic character of economic crises, the formation of the industrial reserve army of unemployed, and the intensification of capitalist exploitation as the factory system develops). Using the example of England, Engels ascertained the link between the industrial revolution and the class structure of society, and established the relationship between the development of the large-scale industry and the development of the working-class movement. He substantiated the necessity of uniting socialism with the workers’ movement and showed that communism is the inevitable result of the class struggle of the proletariat. In The German Ideology (1845-46), Marx and Engels for the first time evolved an integral materialist concept of history, thus providing a philosophical basis for the theory of scientific communism. Elucidation of the dialectics of the interaction and development of the productive forces and the relations of production meant the philosophical substantiation of the inevitability of the proletarian revolution, and made it possible to formulate the main propositions of the theory of communist society. Draft of a Communist Confession of Faith, Principles of Communism, and Manifesto of the Communist Party (1847-48) are works in which Marx and Engels summed up the results of the evolution and substantiation of scientific communism, which they arrived at in the 1840s; described the general course of the development of capitalism; characterised its main laws; provided an analysis of the antagonistic contradictions of capitalist society (first of all, the contradictions between the productive forces and the relations of production); examined the question of the level of development of capitalism necessary for the elimination of private property; formulated the historical task of the dictatorship of the proletariat in this period (the abolishment of the economic domination of capitalism, socialisation of the means of production, development of the productive forces, elimination of the contradictions between town and country, and between mental and physical labour); revealed the main features of communist society; and gave a scientific substantiation of the need for a communist party of the working class. After the defeat of the bourgeois-democratic revolution in Europe, in November 1849 Engels emigrated to England, where he was actively involved in publishing the Neue Rheinische Zeitung. Politisch-Okonomische Revue. In 1850, Engels published there his work "The Peasant War in Germany”, which generalised the experience of the 1848-49 revolution. Applying the dialectico- materialist method to the study of one of the most important periods in Germany’s history, Engels characterised the peasant war as an early bourgeois revolution, and revealed the revolutionary potential of the peasantry as an ally of the proletariat. In a series of articles "Revolution and Counter- Revolution in Germany" published in 1851-52 in the progressive American newspaper NewYork Daily Tribune, Engels, generalising the experience of the struggle of classes and parties in Germany in 1848-49, concretised the fundamental problems of the materialist understanding of history. Throughout the entire period of the 122 evolution of economic theory (1850s- 1870s) Engels worked closely with Marx. Engels’s reviews of Marx’s work A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy and of Volume I of Capital greatly facilitated the spread of Marx’s economic theory in the workers’ movement, bringing out Capital’s content and its communist orientation. In Anti-Diihring (1878), Engels counterposed the main propositions of Marxist theory, notably Marx’s economic theory, to Duhring’s petty-bourgeois socialism. The result was an encyclopaedic essay of all three components of Marxism. (A series of Engels’s articles The Housing Question, written in 1872-73, was also devoted to critisising petty-bourgeois and bourgeois socialism). In Anti-Diihring, Engels made extensive use of the material in the first volume of Capital to popularise and concretise it as applied to communist economy. Formulated here in concentrated form are conclusions which follow from Marx’s economic theoryrelating to the communist method of distribution, the fundamental role of social consciousness in communist society, etc. In Anti-Diihring, Engels concretised the dialectico-materialist method of economic research and formulated extremely important propositions relating to the subject and method of political economy (political economy in a broad and narrow sense, etc.). After Marx’s death in 1883, Engels prepared the third and fourth German editions of Volume I of Capital (1883 and 1890) for publication. He edited the English translation of this work (1887). On the basis of Marx’s rough manuscripts, Engels did a huge amount of work preparing the second and third volumes of Capital (1885 and 1894) for publication and can justly be regarded as the co-author. Of great importance are Engels’ additions to the third volume of Capital, written by him in 1895 but published posthumously— "Law of Value and Rate of Profit" and "The Stock Exchange" (which was left unfinished) . In the first addition, Engels substantiated the objective character of the law of value, tracing its historical development from simple commodity production to capitalist production. In the second addition he characterised certain new phenomena of the capitalist economy, which closely approach the monopoly stage of capitalist development. Illness and then death prevented Engels from starting out, as he had intended, to prepare the publication of the fourth volume of Capital. In 1873-83, Engels worked on Dialectics of Nature, in which he gave the dialecticomaterialist generalisation of the most important achievements of the natural sciences of the mid-19th century. This work, containing a wealth of philosophical and natural scientific ideas, was published in 1925. In 1884, Engels wrote The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, in which he summed up Marx’s and his outlook on pre-capitalist social formations which had evolved over many years. The theory of the state developed in that work was subsequently concretised by Lenin, above all, in his work The State and Revolution (1918) as applied to the new historical epoch. Engels worked out the most important problems of the materialist understanding of history in his work Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy (1886) and in his letters about historical materialism (1890-94). Together with Marx, Engels was the leader of the International Working Men’s Association, and friend of and adviser to European socialists. "It is impossible to understand Marxism and to propound it fully without taking into account all the works of Engels" (V. I. Lenin, Collected Works, Vol. 21, p. 91).