p Both man and higher animals possess the intrinsic ability to experience sensations. This ability, according to Pavlov, rests on a physiological basis which is common for both man and animals; namely, the first signal system. It is a mechanism through which the organism responds directly to the action of concrete objects and phenomena. Being the sole signals for an animal, these objects act on its sense organs and arouse corresponding sensations in its nervous system.

p But man’s sensations, in contrast to those of animals, are always illuminated by the light of reason. Man is capable of abstract thinking, i.e., of a generalised reflection of reality in concepts expressed in words. Every word denotes a definite object, phenomenon, or action with which it is inseparably associated. That is why man reacts to words just as to the direct influence of the objects themselves. Inasmuch as the first signals are the objects themselves, the words designating them acquire the role of secondary signals. They, as Pavlov pointed out, are the “signals of signals”. He called the physiological mechanism through which man reacts to words, to speech, the second signal system. This system is inherent in man alone.

p The first and the second signal systems are organically connected, giving man an all-round and profound knowledge of reality.

p And so, man’s consciousness qualitatively differs from the mentality of animals.

p The cause of this difference lies in the fact that the mentality of animals is a product of biological development only, whereas man’s consciousness is above all a result of 67 historical, social development.

p The very sensations of man radically differ from those of animals. The eyes of an eagle, for example, see much farther than those of man, but man has immeasurably greater insight than the eagle into what is seen.

p Marx held that the formation of man’s five sense organs is a product of the whole of world history. Man’s musical ear, his eye for nature’s beauty, his fine taste and other sense organs have developed on the basis of the practical experience of human society at various stages of its history.

p Labour, i.e., production of material values, is the decisive factor in the development of man, in the emergence and development of his consciousness. “Labour created man himself,” Engels pointed out. Due to labour our distant ape-like ancestor developed into the modern man, Homo Sapiens. Labour gave man food, clothing, shelter and not only protected him against the elements, but also enabled him to subjugate them, to place them at his service. Through labour man changed himself beyond recognition and also changed our planet. Labour is man’s greatest possession and is indispensable to his life and development.

p Anthropoid apes already had the prerequisites of labour. They used sticks, stones and other objects to procure food. But they did it unconsciously and accidentally. Neither apes nor any other animals can make even the simplest tool. Man, however, consciously makes and uses tools, and in this lays the qualitative distinction of his labour. To leam this man needed hundreds of thousands of years, throughout which there took place the highly intricate process of man’s emergence and the formation and development of his consciousness.

p The adoption of a vertical posture by anthropoid apes was of great importance in creating conditions for labour and the appearance of the first glimmers of consciousness. This posture meant that the front limbs were relieved of their use as an aid to walking and could now be used for work. At first, with the help of his hands, our distant ancestor used “implements” of labour (sticks and stones) in their natural state and then began to make tools out of natural objects. The first of them were extremely primitive (a roughly-hewn stone, a sharpened stick, etc.). The consciousness of the man of that age was primitive too. He did not 68 yet distinguish the essence of objects, did not see what they had in common, did not know how they could be of use to him.

p The further development and improvement of labour was accompanied by an advance in man’s consciousness. Coming in contact with various natural objects in the course of obtaining his means of subsistence, he learned their properties, compared them and singled out what they had in common and what recurred.

p The making and improvement of labour implements played a particularly important role in the development of consciousness. The implements, which were handed down from generation .to generation, embodied work habits and knowledge. Succeeding generations, knowing the methods of making and using the implements of their ancestors, were able to improve and develop them.

p The consciousness of primitive man was organically bound up with his labour; it was, so to say, interwoven with his labour activity. And this is understandable because man first of all learned that which was directly connected with his labour, the satisfaction of his wants. It is no accident that the portrayal of man’s labour occurs so often in primitive art.

p In the process of labour man acquired not only consciousness, i.e., ability to reflect the surrounding world, but also self-consciousness, i.e., awareness and the ability to assess his thoughts and sentiments, interests, motives and deeds, and his place and role in society. This, in turn, prompted the further improvement of his work habits and the establishment and development of society.

Thus, in unity of labour and thought, and on the basis of labour activity, man’s consciousness developed and improved.