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p The decisive condition for women’s real equality with men is their participation in social labour. The growth of women’s involvement in social labour gives rise to social and economic consequences, the chief of which is the change in the role of women in society and in the family. Their new role in society arises from the fact that female labour has become one of the most important factors in socialist construction. The active participation of women in social production furthers the all-round development of their personalities and helps to mould their general outlook. Her separate earnings make the woman independent of her husband, who used to be the sole breadwinner.

p This enhancement of the role of women in social labour is in the interests both of society as a whole and of its individual members.

p The main feature of the use of female labour in social production under socialism is that the employment of women takes place under the conditions generated by public ownership of the means of production and by a planned economy. As a result, favourable conditions are created for women to work outside the home. This enables women to fully exercise their right to work, which is guaranteed by the whole socio-economic system of socialist society.

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p Scientific and technological progress is creating new and broader possibilities for the growth of women’s economic activity and for raising the efficiency with which female labour is used. The effect of scientific and technological progress currently extends far beyond industry and is revolutionising personal as well as social work. The objective preconditions for increasing the employment of women in social production are prepared, on the one hand, by the reduction in the use of hard manual labour as a result of mechanisation and automation, and the expansion and emergence of new sectors of material production, as well as the non-productive sphere, and, on the other hand, by the spread of mechanical devices, chemical products and various other commodities that make housework less labourconsuming. Since the economy is planned and the production relations are socialist, scientific and technological progress in both the USSR and other socialist countries has always exerted and is exerting a positive influence on female labour, expanding the framework in which it can be used while at the same time avoiding the negative consequences that are characteristic of capitalist production (unemployment, increased migration, etc.).

p In the Soviet Union substantial strides have been made in the past two decades in the use of female labour in social production. The numbers of working women have been increased, as has the share of female labour as a whole, and there have been changes in its sectoral and professional distribution. The proportion of women among workers and office employees rose to 51 per cent in 1974, as compared with 47 per cent in 1960 and 46 per cent in 1955. Between 1955 and 38 1974 inclusively the numbers of women workers and office employees rose by almost 28 million and in 1974 amounted to 51.2 million.

p Scientific and technological progress has also caused changes in the distribution of the female workforce between the various sectors of the economy and, primarily, between the key sectors of material production.

p The numbers of women employed in industry have more than doubled over the past 20 years. The growth in the numbers of women has proceeded at a more rapid pace than the growth in the numbers of men, which has led to a heightened share of female labour in this particular economic sector: in 1974 women constituted 49 per cent of the industrial workforce, as opposed to 46 per cent in 1965.

p Substantial changes in the employment of female labour have also occurred in individual industries. This is particularly true of engineering—the material basis of the technical modernisation of the whole economy, which is called upon to accelerate scientific and technological progress. The development of the engineering industry as a whole is proceeding through the organisation of new areas of technology (which in turn give rise to new sectors and enterprises), and also through the development of old sectors and the modernisation and expansion of existing enterprises. The numbers of women employed in engineering are rising steeply. At present about one-third of all the women employed in industrial production work in engineering.

p The growth in the employment of women is occurring in such engineering industries as electrical engineering, the bearings industry and other industries that have only been making use of the 39 female workforce for a relatively short period of time. This was made possible thanks to the mechanisation and automation of a number of production processes. In fact, in these areas women are preferred to men, since in a number of vital operations, such as assembly and fitting, which call for close attention, accuracy, dexterity and care, women usually handle the work better than men: the quality of the finished goods is usually higher, there is less wastage, and productivity is raised.

p The light industry, which is traditionally regarded as a "women’s sector”, has yielded first place to engineering and now comes second as regards the numbers of women employed in it.

p Most of the women employed in the light industry work in sewing and knitted-goods industries. Their high numbers here result from the nature of the production process.

p In addition to those already listed, women are employed in all sectors of industry in which the use of female labour is legally permissible.

p Great changes have also taken place in agriculture. This sector of the economy has moved down into second place as regards its employment of a female workforce. The main agricultural spheres employing women at the moment are plantgrowing and livestock raising.

p Female labour is also widely employed in the sphere of public health, education, trade and public catering. All these sectors employ a high proportion of women, and this tendency is on the increase. The following table reflects the process.

p The further development of these sectors results from public demand and is characterised by significant progressive quantitative and 40 Percentage of personnel formed by women 1960 T974 Public health, physical education and social security . . , ...... 85 70 66 85’ 73; 70 Education and culture .,,,,.. Trade, public catering, material and technical supply and sale, purchases qualitative changes which have enabled women’s labour to be employed on a wide scale (extension of the network of vocational training, increase in the number of jobs, training of skilled personnel, etc.). Yet there is another, subjective side: when women choose to make their careers in the health and education services, their inclinations and habits gained in looking after the sick and bringing up children come into play here.

p Soviet women also occupy a worthy place in various branches of modern science. Socialism has provided them with the broadest opportunities here. According to the latest data, 49 per cent of the people employed in science and scientific servicing are women.

p Women play an enormous part in the development of culture and art. They perform a great deal of varied work in libraries, houses of culture, clubs, recreation parks, theatres and cinemas, museums, exhibitions, and so on. Women occupy an honourable place among performers and producers, artists and sculptors.

p One feature of the current stage in the scientific and technological revolution is the substantial structural changes in the aggregate social labour— 41 less use of simple labour and a considerable increase in the application of skilled labour. This process is taking place in the qualitative structure of both male and female labour.

p Fundamental qualitative changes have occurred in the professional structure of female personnel. The main feature here is the acquisition of professions calling for skilled and highly skilled work in both old and new industries and professions. The numbers of women with a higher or complete or incomplete secondary education have increased more than in the case of men. In 1974, as compared with" 1939, the numbers of women with a higher education increased from 5 per 1,000 women to 45, or 9 times, while the numbers" of’men rose from 11 to 58*per 1,000 men, or"5.3 times. The numbers of women with a complete or" incomplete secondary education increased from?85 per 1,000 women to 459, or 5.4 times, while the numbers of men rose from 116 to 519, or 4.5 times. The proportion of people having a higher or secondary education (complete or incomplete) has become the same among working women and men.

p In 1973, the Soviet economy employed ^ million women specialists with a higher or specialised secondary education, or 59 per cent of the total number of specialists. The numbers of women in this category were 14 times as large in 1973 as in 1940, and 79 times the 1928 figure. Women make up 31 per cent of all Soviet engineers, 40 per cent of the country’s agronomists, livestock specialists and veterinary surgeons, 64 per cent of its economists, 70 per cent of its doctors ^"and 71 per cent of its teachers.

p The comprehensive programme of scientific and technological progress that was envisaged by the Soviet economic development plan for 1971-1975 42 is being successfully implemented. The basis of the programme is the development and application in production of fundamentally new instruments of labour, new materials and progressive technological processes. All this will serve as the foundation for the further expansion of suitable jobs for women in social production and for the improvement of women’s skills.

p Obviously, the equal participation of women in the economic and other spheres depends to a considerable extent on the level and quality of their education and professional training. In order to provide women with the opportunity of receiving a general or specialised education on a par with men, and skilled or highly skilled work, the principle has been introduced in the USSR, and is backed up by the authority of the state, that the content of syllabi and the length of study time should be the same for all citizens, irrespective of their sex, nationality, and so on. This principle is binding at all stages in the educational system—from the elementary stage to the highest level. Women’s genuine equality with men as regards general and professional education is ensured by compulsory 8-year schooling, the broad development of secondary general, vocational, specialised secondary and higher education, maximal development of evening classes and correspondence courses,the provision of all forms of instruction free of charge, the system of state grants for students, the use of native languages as the teaching medium in schools, the organisation of free production training in factories and on state and collective farms, and so on. In accordance with the Directives of the 24th CPSU Congress for the Five-Year Economic Development Plan for 1971-1975, the 43 transition to universal secondary (10-year) education is now nearing completion.

p During the schooling process boys and girls acquire the same amount of knowledge that they need both to continue their education at a higher level and for practical work in various fields.

p The training of skilled workers whose labour can be used in all sectors of the economy is carried out in urban and rural vocational schools and in evening (shift-system) vocational schools and their various branches. Both young men and young women are admitted to all these educational establishments on the same criteria. The only professions for which girls are not trained are those which are injurious to the female body. This restriction arises from the need to protect the health of the future mother.

p The period from 1950 to 1970 saw an increase in the numbers of young people entering various vocational schools. The total number of entrants increased by 4.8 times, and the numbers of girls by almost 16 times. The percentage of girls among the students more than trebled.

p The comprehensive mechanisation and automation of production processes that are being carried out in the USSR give broader scope for the employment of women and make new demands on the level of their skills. Accordingly, the pace of technological progress has made it necessary to extend the training of women workers in a number of professions, particularly those involving the supervision and control of automated processes in various sectors of the economy.

p At the beginning of 1969 the USSR Council of Ministers passed a decision "On the Broader Involvement of Women in Skilled Agricultural Work”. As a result, 3-year agricultural 44 vocational colleges were set up to train skilled agricultural workers from pupils leaving the 8-year schools. These colleges train skilled workers in agricultural production, mainly young women. At the same time, modifications to farm machinery are being considered so as to make it easier for women to use.

p The training and raising the skills of factory and office workers in enterprises, institutions and organisations also take place through individual, team and course instruction. This form of training is particularly important for those women whose spare time is limited hy family concerns.

Every year the specialised secondary and higher educational establishments produce a large number of highly qualified specialists. The proportion of women studying at higher and specialised secondary educational establishments can be seen from the following table, which shows the percentage of women students as of the beginning of the academic year:

Higher educational establishments Specialised secondary schools 1960/61 1973/74 1960/61 1973/74 Women as a percentage of the student 43 50 47 53 Breakdown according to type of institution:’ Industry, building, transport and communications .... Agriculture 30 27 49 39 32 61 33 38 75 40 36 85 Economics and law . 45 Higher educational establishments Specialised secondary schools 1960/61 1973/74 1960/61 1973/74 Public health, physical education and 56 63 56 68 84 76 88 81 Education, art, cinematography ....

p At present women occupy a considerable place among the students attending educational establishments training staff for industry, building, transport, communications and agriculture, and are predominant in institutions preparing specialists in public health and physical education, education and art, economics and law.

p During the five-year period from 1971 to 1975 some nine million people graduated from higher and specialised secondary educational establishments. Particularly prominent here is the training of specialists in new fields of science and technology. Matters relating to the improvement of all forms of education came up for detailed examination at the USSR Supreme Soviet Session held in July 1973. The work of improving all stages in the educational process is continuing.

_p The next phase in the country’s development will be noted by the further use of female labour in social production. The basis for this will be provided by scientific and technological progress, the growth in the volume of industrial and agricultural output, the intensification of industry, agriculture and other sectors of material production, the broad development of services, and so on. 46 All this will enable Soviet women to apply their capabilities to many different fields and will help to ensure their more harmonious development.

p Women and State Administration

p The participation of women in social and productive labour is of great significance to the growth of their social activity and to the enhancement of their role in socio-political and state life. Making the point that it is important to involve the masses in politics and state administration, Lenin wrote: "But you cannot draw the masses into politics without drawing in the women as well."  [46•1 

p In his work The Tasks of the Proletariat in Our Revolution Lenin also stresses that women must take part in all social affairs. "Unless women are brought to take an independent part not only in political life generally, but also in daily and universal public service, it is no use talking about full and stable democracy, let alone socialism."  [46•2 

p These instructions of Lenin’s are being constantly implemented. Every year sees a growth in the numbers of women deputies who are elected to all the organs of state power. The female electorate take an active part in elections, nominate deputies, carry out a great deal of organisational and agitation work in their support, and work in electoral commissions.

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_p The following figures convey some idea of the participation of women in the work of elected organs of state power:

Numbers of Women Elected to Local Government Bodies

Year Total number of women deputies Women deputies as a percentage of all deputies 1939 422.3 33.1 1947-48 482 1961 741.3 41.0 1967 875.3 43.0 1971 992.6 45.8 1973 1,039 47.4 1975 1,063.6 48.1 Numbers of Women Elected to the USSR Supreme Soviet Year Total number of women deputies Women deputies as a percentage of all deputies 1952 348 25.8 1958 366 27.0 1962 390 27.0 1966 425 28.0 1970 463 31.0 1974 475 31.3

p The numbers of women deputies elected to the Supreme Soviets of the Union republics are also growing. In 1959, there were 1,718 of them elected, or 32 per cent of the total number of deputies, whereas in 1975 there were 2,158, or 35.4 per cent of the total number.

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p There are over a million women deputies to all elected bodies, and they take an extremely active part in state administration, posing and resolving numerous questions affecting the lives of Soviet people. This is clear evidence of the genuine democracy of socialist society.

p Law is an important sphere of state activity in which Soviet women play a very active part. A total of 2,934 women have been elected as people’s judges, 34.0 per cent of the total number of judges. People’s assessors include 310,000 women, or 4’J.(> per cent of all people’s assessors. High government, Party and trade union posts are open to Soviet women. In five autonomous republics women occupy the position of chairmen of the presidiums of the Supreme Soviets. In eight Union republics they are deputy chairmen of the Council of Ministers. There are women who are ministers, deputy ministers or departmental heads of ministries in every Union and autonomous republic. Thousands of women work as chairmen, deputy chairmen and secretaries of the local Soviets of Working People’s Deputies. All in all, women occupy 63 per cent of all posts in the various bodies of state administration and economic management. They display a vast amount of initiative, care and creative energy in the satisfaction of the needs of the working people, and concern for young people and children.

p Over three million women are members of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the guiding and directing force in Soviet society (in all, the CPSU has 15 million members). Many of them are in charge of Party organisations and carry out a great deal of organisational and educative work among both Party members and non-Party 49 people, rallying them to accomplish the tasks facing the country.

p The role of women in such mass organisations as the trade unions is particularly great. Women constitute half of the trade union membership and are elected to all the governing bodies of the unions. Ihus, women form 34.5 per cent of the membership of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions.

p Women participate actively in cooperative and youth organisations. A great contribution to public life is made by the women’s councils that have been formed in enterprises, institutions, and collective farms, and by the women’s commissions attached to the trade unions and those working under the various societies for friendship and cultural relations with foreign countries.

p An organisation as massive as the Union of Soviet Friendship Societies is headed by Nina Popova, a winner of International Lenin Prize "For the Promotion of Peace Among Nations”, a Deputy to the USSR Supreme Soviet and a member of the CC CPSU. The Chairman of the Soviet Women’s Committee is the first, and as yet the only, woman cosmonaut, Valentina Nikolayeva-Tereshkova, a Hero of the Soviet Union, a deputy and member of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet and a member of the CC CPSU.

p Working in organs of state power, the Party, the trade unions, the cooperative societies and youth and women’s organisations, women participate on a broad scale in the country’s administration and, together with men, deal with all the most important matters in state, production and socio-political life.

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p After her trip to the Soviet Union in August 1972, Baliia Karam, a public figure from the Arab Republic of Egypt, stated: "1 cannot help admiring the energy, patience and selflessness with which Soviet women have handled the equality problem. We are inspired by the example set by Soviet women, and we are determined to follow in their footsteps. I shall never forget my trip to Uzbekistan, where 1 met many women in authority. I went to Tashkent and Samarkand and saw women in these towns taking part in the life of their country, and I saw how many of them were headmistresses, professors and political leaders.”

Speaking at one of the meetings held to mark the 50th anniversary of the formation of the USSR, the former President of the Women’s International Democratic Federation and a prominent public figure in Finland, Hertta Kuusinen, who died in 1974, said: "During these happy days we are delighted to see the profound changes ilia I have occurred in the lives of Soviet women. Enslaved under tsarism, exploited twice over, illiterate and deprived of all rights, I hey have been transformed into most advanced, cultured persons, the equals of their men colleagues, active builders of their own lives and the lives of new generations in their country, which has been forever liberated from oppression and exploitation. You have become an example for millions of women in other countries, and a symbol of the emancipated woman, who is capable of employing her talents and her energy for the benefit of the people....”