The Social and Political Structure
of the Roman Republic

p During the rule of the Roman kings and the early history of the Republic relics of the clan system were still fairly strong. Political power was in the hands of representatives of the hereditary aristocracy known as patricians. As a rule, the best lands belonged to them, which meant that the patricians were not only of noble blood but also the richest citizens. The mass of the people were known as plebeians—these included the middle and poorer peasants and also the artisans or traders living in the city. The number of the plebeians was constantly growing and as a group they became less and less homogeneous. The bulk of the plebeians were impoverished, frequently falling into debt slavery, while a certain section was to grow rich through trading or usury. The rich plebeians soon began to seek political rights and privileges like those of the patricians. As for the slaves, at this early period of Roman history there were comparatively few of them and slavery was of a patriarchal variety.

p The state structure of the Roman Republic was arranged on the following lines: the highest office was that of consul—of which there were two, elected annually; they were in command of the levy, and it was they who convened the Senate and the assemblies of the people (comitia). The Senate was the main state organ of the Roman Republic; it consisted of 300 members and included former consuls and other high-ranking officials. It should be pointed out that the post of consul and hence that of senator as well was only open to members of the patrician class. The Senate decided questions of internal and foreign policy and controlled the budget and the state property. The assemblies of the people were: the popular or centuriate assembly, where almost all state officials were elected and where representatives of the patrician class had a permanent majority in Rome, and the plebeian tribal assembly, to which legislative functions were transferred quite early on.

Although in the Roman Republic, just as in Athens, there existed a popular assembly and elections for state offices (state officials in Rome were never paid for their work), the great weight the Senate carried in state affairs gave the Roman Republic a markedly aristocratic character.

The Struggle Between the Patricians
and the Plebeians

p The internal history of Rome from the fifth to the third century B.C. was marked by the struggle between the patricians and the plebeians, a struggle for land and political rights. The plebeian masses campaigned for more land, while political equality was the goal of the richer upper stratum.

p One of the earliest and most dramatic episodes in this struggle was the so-called Plebeian Secession, when in full armour they all left Rome and set up their camp on the "Holy Mountain" (Mons Sacer—494 B.C.). The departure of the plebeians drastically weakened Rome’s military strength and the patricians were obliged to make various concessions. An important new post was created—that of people’s tribune, whose role was to champion the interests and rights of the plebeians. These tribunes were elected (at first there were two, then five and later as many as ten) by the plebeian tribal assembly, and were entitled to protest against the orders of all other officials (the right of veto).

In the course of this struggle the plebeians gradually forced the patricians to make new concessions. The so-called laws of the Twelve Tables were decreed (451-450) and the courts which were inevitably in the hands of the patricians were made subject to 92 these laws. Somewhat later (445 B.C.) marriages between patricians and plebeians were made legal. In the year 367 B.C., plebeians were declared eligible for the post of consul (the laws of Licinius and Sextius) and subsequently for all other high posts in the republic. All this amounted to a virtual levelling out of the rights of the patricians and the richer plebeians and a merging of the two groups. A new patrician-plebeian aristocracy grew up in Rome which came to be known as the nobility. The nobility soon assumed all political power and the Senate became its obedient tool. The vast mass of the poorer plebeians meanwhile had gained nothing and had merely become further impoverished in the course of all this strife.

Rome Conquers Italy, Fifth-Third Centuries B.C.

p During these three centuries Rome was almost continually at war. Roman foreign policy inspired by the Senate was extremely aggressive.

p During the fifth century, Rome fought against nearby cities and neighbouring tribes, such as the Volsci and the Aequi. Victories in these campaigns gave the Romans complete sway over the right bank of the lower reaches of the Tiber. These were the Romans’ first military successes. The fourth century however was to present a very different picture. In 390, the Gauls (as the Romans called the Celts) marched on Rome by way of northern Italy. The Roman troops suffered a crushing defeat in a battle on the river Allia and the Gauls were able to take Rome without difficulty— except for the Capitol Hill which was defended by crack Roman troops. On one occasion they made an attempt to seize the Capitol by night but the sacred geese kept in the temple of Juno raised the alarm and the defenders succeeded in beating off the attack. Hence the famous expression "The geese saved Rome".

p In the second half of the fourth century, the Romans waged a grim battle to gain control of central Italy. They were obliged to fight against their former allies, the Latins, and wage three wars against the large Italic tribe of the Samnites. During the socalled Third Samnite War the Romans were opposed not only by the Samnites but the Etruscans as well. The war against the coalition of Italic tribes was waged with fluctuating success, but in the end the Romans emerged victorious and subjugated central Italy.

p In the third century B.C. the last stage of the battle for Italy began. Now it was the turn of the cities of Magna Graecia. Some of them joined an alliance with Rome and recognised its leadership, but one of the major southern cities, Tarentum, decided to 93 resist Roman aggression. The people of Tarentum turned for help to Pyrrhus, King of Epirus in north-west Greece. He was a distant descendant of Alexander the Great, who dreamt of winning the same glory, and he willingly set off to conquer Italy.

Pyrrhus and his troops landed in Italy in the year 280 B.C. In the first battle against the Romans he gained a resounding victory. Pyrrhus then marched north and soon afterwards confronted the Romans a second time at Ausculum where he gained a second victory. However, this battle had been such a fierce one and Pyrrhus’ losses so great that he is reputed to have exclaimed: "But if we gain another such victory we are finished!" (Hence the expression "Pyrrhic victory".) After this battle Pyrrhus left with his troops for Sicily, where he spent some time but failed to conquer the island. Later he returned to Italy and in the year 275 B.C. he fought his last battle against the Romans in Beneventum which ended in a rout. Thus Pyrrhus was forced to leave Italy. Two years later Tarentum surrendered to the Romans, who gradually succeeded in gaining control of the other towns of southern Italy. As a result of the wars which the Romans waged throughout the fifth, fourth and third centuries they subjugated the whole of Italy from the southern coast to Cisalpine Gaul. Rome thus succeeded in becoming one of the major Mediterranean powers. Roman aspirations were now directed beyond the borders of the Apennine peninsula and Rome’s struggle for control of the whole of the Mediterranean basin had begun.