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p A distinction must be drawn between the period of transition from capitalism to socialism and non-capitalist development, which likewise represents progress towards socialism directly from pre-capitalist (feudal and patriarchal) social systems.

p The transition from capitalism to socialism is effected when the material (sufficiently high level of economic development) and social (the existence of a working class and 170 its Marxist party) factors have matured. On the other hand, these factors are non-existent or only nascent when society moves towards socialism from pre-capitalist relations and, therefore, the general laws governing the building of socialism in the transition period are, naturally, inapplicable in their, so to speak, classical form.

p This requires a closer examination.

p Inasmuch as in some countries that have embarked upon non-capitalist development there is hardly any class differentiation and the working class is only in its embryonic stage, socialist reforms can be started without a proletarian dictatorship, provided, say, there is a revolutionarydemocratic government. There the prerequisites of the new society are created by the revolutionary-democratic government. In protecting the country against the export of counter-revolution, building up an economy, developing culture, and so forth it is helped by the proletarian dictatorship that has triumphed in other countries. By drawing upon the assistance and support of socialist countries, a developing country can start building the material and social basis of socialism.

p The abolition of private ownership is indispensable on the non-capitalist road as well. However, this process, too, may acquire specific forms. In most of the developing countries the economy is dependent upon foreign monopolies and there is no possibility of nationalising it swiftly, in a single act so to speak. There nationalisation is a gradual process and in many cases it is to the advantage of the government to pay compensation to the bourgeoisie which has been loyal to the new power. But this does not mean that in this case nationalisation loses its anti-capitalist tenor.

p The methods of industrialisation and of agricultural cooperation are also extremely varied in countries developing along non-capitalist lines. The finding of local resources and the receipt of assistance from the socialist countries do not exclude the possibility of attracting foreign investments in order to win economic independence. This policy is pursued by some African countries.

p Communal forms of ownership or survivals of these forms left over from pre-colonial times, from the period before the appearance of commodity production and the 171 entrenchment of imperialist exploitation, are to be found in many of the liberated countries. The thing that these forms have in common with socialism is that the means of production are not private property. But that is all that they have in common with socialism, and this single feature does not allow this ancient mode of production to ring in the future socialist society.

p The clan community possesses only primitive means of production. Simple reproduction proceeds laboriously, labour productivity is extremely low, and economic activity and the entire life of the community bears the stamp of seclusion. This distinguishes the ancient communal system from socialist society with its powerful productive forces and close co-operation among industrial and other enterprises on the basis of socialist public ownership. History has not given us an example of communal forms of ownership, which are a survival of the clan system, being able to engender a socialist society. In no country have these forms been strong enough to withstand the corrupting influence of commodity production and the world market. Many of these communities witnessed the appearance of private proprietors, who seized commonly-owned possessions and exploited their fellow tribesmen.

p However, this does not mean that ancient forms of collective ownership and labour cannot play any role in building a new society, particularly in the setting up of agricultural co-operatives. A people’s government can breathe new life into the peasant community and help the farmers to turn it into a co-operative. The experience of Mali and some other African countries testifies that the anti-imperialist forces can awaken initiative in these communities and direct their enthusiasm towards the building of a new life.

As regards the other laws of socialist construction (planned economic development with the purpose of building the new society and raising the standard of living, the cultural revolution, the creation of a people’s intelligentsia, the abolition of national oppression and the establishment of equality and friendship among nations and solidarity among the working people of the whole world), they can, in principle, be applied also in a society developing along non-capitalist lines.