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p Since ancient limes, people have pondered the cause of changes in nature and the society, looking for their source and driving power.

p Thinkers made various suppositions on this point, either 161 approaching or moving away from the truth. Thus, religion attributes the changes going on m the world to God, idealists to the operation ol some universal will or supranalural absolute idea, and metaphysicians look lor the source of motion and change in some external force, in an initial impulse, and so end up in idealism.

p The scientific answer to the question of the cause of development given by the MarxistLeninist philosophy is expressed in the law of the unity and struggle of opposiies. Lenin called that law the essence, the core of materialist dialectics. It reveals the inner cause of development, showing that Us source lies in the contradictory nature of phenomena and processes, the interaction and struggle of the opposiies immanent in them.

p To understand this law, one should tirst clear u]> the meaning ol opposiies and contradictions.

p Opposiies are the inner aspects, tendencies or forces of an object or phenomenon which rule each oilier out while simultaneously presupposing each other. The interconnection ol opposites constitutes a contradiction.

p A magnet is an example of opposites in inanimate nature. Its main specific feature is the presence ol such mutually exclusive but closely interconnected aspects as opposite poles. No matter how one tries to separate the North pole from the South pole, that cannot be done. Lven cut in two, lour, eight, or more parts, the magnet will still 162 have I lie same poles.

p The existence and development ol living organisms are also marked by opposiles. I hus, assimilation and dissimilation * are opposites. Bui with the disappearance of either of these, the organism is hound to die. Such properties as heredity and adaptability are also opposites. On the one hand, the organism tends to retain inherited traits, and on the other, it tends to develop new traits in accordance with the changing conditions.

p In antagonistic-class societies, there are opposite classes: slave and slave-owner in the slaveholding society; peasant and feudal lord under feudalism; proletarian and bourgeois under capitalism.

p Contradictory aspects also mark cognition, the process of thinking.

p So, all phenomena and processes of reality have opposite aspects, l^vcrything is shot through with contradiction.

p How do the opposiles within phenomena and objects interact? This interaction includes both

* .\ssimilalion is the lonnation in the body ol complex substances from simpler ones, and dissimilation is the break down of such complex substances within the body, in the course of which CIHT«A is released for use in vital processes; assimilation and dissimilation constitute the metabolic exchange ot substances within the body.

163 their unity and their struggle.

p The unit\ of opposites means that they cannot exist without each other and are mutually dependent. Another manifestation of their unity is that in definite conditions they are balanced out. Such an equilibrium, when neither of the two opposite sides prevails, marks a stage of stability in the development of a thing. The state of equilibrium, however, is only relative and temporary. In the course of development, the equilibrium is upset, which ultimately leads to the disappearance of one thing and the emergence of another, with a new unity of opposites. In the body of a young animal, for instance, assimilation prevails; in a other one, assimilation and dissimilation are balanced out; and in an ageing one, dissimilation becomes predominant.

p While being in unity, the opposites are at the same time in “struggle” with each other, that is, they mutually negate and rule each other out. Whereas the unity of opposites is relative, their struggle, Lenin said, is just as absolute and permanent as motion and development. Indeed, the very existence of contradictions implies the reaction of one opposite upon another and mutual changes as a result.

p Thus, the interplay of such opposite aspects of social life as production and consumption inevitably leads to changes in both of these, and then in the society as a whole. The society’s needs 164 influence production and elleel changes in it. Taking these needs into account, production develops in a corresponding direction. In the period of colonial dependence, for instance, production was largely oriented to meet the requirements of the metropolitan countries, while the rise to national independence makes it necessary to re-orient the whole of social production towards meeting the requirementsoi’national development. And socialist transformations in the society put forward the clear-cut task of orienting production towards the needs and requirements of the working masses.

p Such a re-orientation of the whole of social production towards the needs of the people inevitably leads to a break-up of the old economic structures and to the emergence and strengthening of new ones, primarily oriented towards contacts with the socialist countries, the natural allies of the newly independent states.

p In seeking to meet the needs of the people, production is perfected and further developed, and the needs change and develop accordingly. The altered needs put new tasks before production. which changes in response, and so on without end. In other words, the interaction of opposite* leads to change and transition to a new qualitative state. This shows that contradictions are the source of the motion and development of objects and phenomena.

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p So. objects and phenomena are characterised b\ opposiles which arc in unity. At the same time. lhe\ nol merely coexist, but are in a slate of constant contradiction and mutual struggle. The struggle of ouposites constitutes the inner content, the source of the development of reality.

p I hi’ contradictions in the world arc numerous and diverse. People come across them m daily hie and examine them in the course of scientific research. 1 he Marxist-Leninist philosophy studies the most general contradictions. Among the more important of these arc: internal and external, antagonistic and non-antagonistic, basic and non-basic.

p Internal contradictions arise between opposite aspects of one and the same object or phenomenon, \vlnle external contradictions arise between a given object or phenomenon and other objects or phenomena.

p Internal contradictions are of decisive importance in the development of any object or phenomenon, lor they are connected with its content, its essence, and arc pivotal to its change and development. Thus, the internal contradictions ol any antagonistic society are those between the exploiters and the exploited, which reflect the essence and nature ol any antagonistic society.

p Kxternal contradictions affect the development ol objects and phenomena, often exerting a considerable influence on the resolution of inter- 166 nal contradictions. That is why they should he taken into account in the study of various development processes.

p The experience of the socialist countries shows that successful socialist construction involves resolution of internal contradictions, the most important of which are those between the working people and the overthrown exploiter classes. External contradictions-those between socialism and capitalism also influence the course of socialist construction, but their resolution mostly depends on the internal development of socialist and capitalist countries.

p At the same time, one should bear in mind that such a division of contradictions into internal and external is only relative, for while the contradictions between the two world systems are external for each of these, for mankind as a whole they are internal.

p The internal contradiction which plays the decisive role in the development of an object or phenomenon is called basic. It relates to the essence of that object or phenomenon, whose other contradictions and overall development depend on the basic contradiction. Thus, the basic contradiction of capitalism is that between the social nature of production and the private capitalist form of appropriation. It determines all of capitalism’s major contradictions: between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, between the 167 whole nation and a handful of monopolists, between production and consumption, etc.

p The basic contradiction of our epoch is thai between socialism and.capitalism, and the course of mankind’s development depends on its evolvement and resolution. Socialism is the ascendant aspect of that contradiction, and it is being resolved in favour of socialism and communism.

p The proposition on the basic contradiction is very important, because to bring out that contradiction in any process is to show the essence of that process.

p In social life, contradictions can be antagonistic and non-antagonistic. What makes contradictions antagonistic is the society’s division into classes with incompatible interests, a division which stems from private property in the means of production. Antagonistic contradictions cannot be resolved in the conditions of the social system which engendered them. They can only be resolved through class struggle and social revolution, which abolishes the old social system and establishes a new one. Such contradictions are characteristic of slave-holding, feudal and capitalist societies. Thus, as the basic contradiction of capitalism develops, it leads capitalism to its inevitable downfall.

p Non-antagonistic contradictions appear when different social groups in a society have common vital interests. Under capitalism, for instance, 168 conn adictions between llie peasanls and the working class arc not antagonistic. I he peasanls have private property : land, cattle and farming iinplenients, and they seek to retain and increase that property. \\orkers, on the other hand, have n.o private property and are interested in abolishin" such properly altogether. Hence a ceriain contradiction between ihc interests ol the^^1^^ peasants and those of the workers. On the main point, however, the interests ol these social groups coincide, lor both arc exploited by the bourgeoisie. ’That enables the working class to win over the peasantry to its side in the struggle against capitalism. In the course ofsocialist construction, the contradictions between them are eliminated once and for all.

p Socialist development is marked by non- antagonistic contradictions. All classes, social groups and individuals in the socialist society have the same fundamental economic interests and politico-moral principles. An overwhelming majority of the people are on the side of the new and, combatting all that is outdated and obsolete, strive towards a common goal. As a result, new modes and forms ol exposing and resolving contradictions arise under socialism. Thus, contradictions are resolved through organised efforts ol the whole people and operation of the society s new motive forces, like socio-political and ideological unity, strengthening legality, socialist patriotism. 169 criticism and sell-criticism. In contrast to earlier formations, where contradictions came to light and were resolved spontaneously, under socialism they are brought out and resolved through Unconscious activity of the people, guided by their Marxist-Leninist partv, whose policy is based on a knowledge of social laws.

p So. the law ol the unity and struggle ol opposites expresses the essence of all motion and development and shows that these occur in the course of interaction between internal opposites. This interaction is the inner source ol motion and the development of all processes and phenomena.

p In analysing an object or phenomenon, one should take its contradictions as a point of departure and regard it as a unity of opposite aspects, properties and tendencies, seeking to elucidate their interconnections. In each object and phenomenon, the important thing is not to see either its positive or its negative side alone, either the new or the old, or even both in isolation from each other, but to detect their unity, their interrelation and contradictory interaction. Such an examination of objects and phenomena is the only way to get at t heir essence. That is why if one is to analyse phenomena in their development, in accordance with the demands of dialectics, one should look at them from the standpoint of the unity and struggle of the opposiles intrinsic to them. "The condition for (he knowledge of all 170 processes of the world in their ’ selj-movement’. in their spontaneous development, in their real life, is the knowledge of them as a unity of opposites. Development is the ’struggle’ of opposites.” ’

p Detection of contradictions in the phenomena being examined helps to uncover not only the motive forces behind these phenomena, but also the laws of their development. This is because the specific contradictions of any phenomenon, which constitute its main content and source of motion, are connected with the mam laws of its development. This means that in order to bring out the essence of a phenomenon and the main laws of its development, one should bring out its immanent contradictions, their system and interconnection, and to pinpoint the basic contradiction operating in the given conditions, at the given stage of development. "Dialectics in the proper sense,” Lenin wrote, "is the study of contradiction in the very essence of objects.”  

p One should never ignore the contradictions immanent in objects and phenomena, but should seek to expose and overcome them. Thus, a knowledge of the contradictions of capitalism enables the working class and all the other working people to understand the ways of resolving them and to choose the forms and methods of struggle.

p V. I. I.cnin, Cnllfcleil ]í»t₍.\. Vol. Sii. p. ,T>8. " /hid., pp. l^r> I-">’_>.

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p In the socialist society, which develops by overcoming its non-antagonistic contradictions, one should not close one’s eyes to any contradictions that may emerge. The important thing is to detect these contradictions in due time and prevent their aggravation.

Since contradictions and the ways of their resolution are diverse, it is important skilfully to identify the specifics of the contradictions that arise in practice and find the optimal ways of their resolution in the given conditions.