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Tachystoscope

Tachystoscope, an instrument that allows to expose visual stimuli for some strictly specified time, including very brief periods. One of the first T. designs, in which stimulus time was controlled by a mechanical shutter, was developed by Wilhelm Wundt. In addition to such mechanical T’s, there are also electronic T’s based on electron modulation of the illumination level. In recent years, computer- controlled indicators and displays have come to be increasingly used for data presentation. Projective T’s in the form of specially equipped slide projectors are used for collective experiments. They are widely employed in theoretical and applied studies of perception, identification, memory, and other cognitive processes.

Talent

Talent, a highly developed level of abilities, primarily of special ones (see Abilities, Specific). The presence of T. should be assessed by the results of individual activity, which must be characterised by basic novelty and originality of approach. Being directed by a manifest need for creative activity, man’s T. always reflects specific social demands. Hence, the individual’s world outlook, and his social stance play a very important role in the development of his T.

Talk (in psychology)

Talk (in psychology), a method for obtaining information through verbal (oral) communication (2). It is widely used in various spheres of psychology (social, medical, child, etc.), and is the main way for leading the subject into situation of psychological experimentation, from strict instruction in psychophysical experiment to free communication in psychotherapy. The specific forms of T. include introductory T., inviting the subject to cooperate; experimental T., during which workinghypotheseeeeessarechecked;and interview.

Talk, Clinical

Talk, Clinical, see Interview, Clinical.

Task

Task, a goal of activity set in specific conditions (for instance, in a problem situation), which must be resolved by transforming those conditions according to a specific procedure. The problem incorporates requisites (goal), conditions (the known) and the unknown formulated in the question. There exist certain relationships and dependencies through which the search is conducted and the unknown elements are established through the known ones. Resolving a T. falls into a logic-psychological category when presented to another subject for solution. The subject 313 reformulates the T., introduces additional specifications and searches for a method of solution, which indicates that he engages in the process of thinking. In this connection thinking is often interpreted as the ability to solve a T. The full cycle of productive thinking incorporates the statement and formulation of the T. by the subject himself, which occurs in posing aims whose conditions are of a problematic nature (see Problem). In cognitive activity perceptional, mnemonic, verbal and conceptual T’s are distinguished. T’s can arise in the process of practical activity or can be created deliberately (training, role-playing T’s). In the working out of types of tasks, such parameters as the number of decisions, the characteristics of the conditions (completeness, lack of completeness, level of contradiction), of requisites (the degree of their definition), and the relation of the aim to the societal and individual needs are used. A hierarchically organised sequence of T’s forms a programme of activity.

Taxes

Taxes, innate orienting of an organism in space as a response to favourable (positive T.) or unfavourable (negative T.) environmental conditions. In plants, such responses show in changes in the direction of growth (tropism). Depending on the effect, physiologists distinguish photo-, chemo-, thermo- and other T. T. of Protozoa and many lower multicellular animals are represented by orthotaxes (changed movement speed) and clinotaxes (changed direction of movement by certain angle). Besides, animals with developed central nervous system and symmetrically arranged sense organs may actively select the direction of their movement and maintain that course ( topotaxes). T. are regular components of even the most complex forms of behaviour.

Taxon

Taxon, a set of discrete (separate) objects associated by specific community of properties and symptoms that characterise it (see Ethology).

Temperament

Temperament, an individual’s characteristic as to innate intensity, speed and rhythm of mental processes and states. Most T. classifications and theories include activeness and emotionality. Behavioural activeness characterises the degree of energy and speed or, on the contrary, slowness and inertia, whereas emotionality characterises the specific trends and valence (positive or negative) of emotions, sentiments, and moods, their modality being expressed by joy, grief, fear, sorrow, anger, and so on. Psychologists distinguish T. proper (a specific stable combination of psychodynamic properties manifested in activity and behaviour) from the organic foundation of T. There exist three basic ’ explanations of T. but the first two are merely of historical interest. The first ( humoral) linked organic states with correlation of various body fluids (liquids) to distinguish four types of T., viz. sanguinic, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic (Hippocrates, Galen), and this terminology became widespread. The second (constitutional) system proceeds from distinctions in body 314 constitution, viz. physical structure and correlation of individual elements and various tissues (Ernst Kretschmer, William Sheldon). The third system associates T. types with the function of the central nervous system. Ivan Pavlov’s teaching about the effects of the central nervous system on the dynamics of behaviour distinguishes three basic properties of the nervous system, viz. strength, balance, and mobility of excitation and inhibition, and their four basic and typical combinations in the form of higher nervous activity: (1) strong, balanced, and mobile; (2) strong, balanced, and inert; (3) strong and disbalanced; and (4) weak. A sanguine person corresponds to type one, a phlegmatic person to type two, a choleric person to type three, and a melancholic person to type four. The studies of Boris Teplov and Vladimir Nebylitsin showed that the structure of the basic properties of the nervous system is much more complicated, and the number of combinations much greater than was previously believed. And yet, being most generalised as they are, the above-mentioned four types of T. may be used in studies of individuality. T. is relatively stable and little subject to changes caused by the environment and upbringing; however, it does change in ontogenesis. T. does not characterise the individual’s essence (motives, value orientations, world outlook); nor does it directly determine his characteristic features. Yet, T. properties may both foster and hamper the forming of specific personality traits, since T. could modify the meaning of environmental and educational factors on which the development of a given personality would decisively depend.

Temporal Connection

Temporal Connection, a synonym for conditioned reflex. Currently interpreted as a general term which, in addition to conditioned reflexes requiring the nervous system to be actualised, describes analogues that may be developed in any protozoa lacking a nervous system.

Territorial Behaviour of Animals

Territorial Behaviour of Animals, a set of various forms of animal activity aimed at occupying and using a specific space (area, place) with which all or some of their vital functions (sleep, rest, feeding, procreation, etc.) are associated. These areas may be either constant or temporary, and belong to either individual animals or groups (common territory of herd, flock, family, etc.). The dimensions, shape and structure of the territories would strongly vary depending on the species. To show that the area is occupied, the “holder” would either make sounds or display himself; mammals would also make scent marks ("boundary marking") on readily visible objects (especially at the boundaries of the area). Animals always defend the territory they occupy.

Testing

Testing, a method of psychodiagnosis involving standardised questions and tasks (tests) with specific value scales. It is used for standardised measurement of individual differences. The, three basic T. spheres are as follows: (a) education—in connection with the 315 increased education period and more complicated curricula; (b) vocational training and selection—in connection with increased growth rates of production and its becoming more complex; and (c) psychological consultation— in connection with accelerated sociodynamic processes. T. allows, with a certain degree of probability, to assess the actual level of development of essential individual skills, knowledge, and personal characteristics. The T. process may be divided into three stages: (1) choice of test (depends on the purpose of T. and on test validity and reliability); (2) performance of test (determined by test instruction); and (3) interpretation of results ( determined by a system of theoretical assumptions about the object of T.). All three stages must involve a skilled psychologist.

T-Group (training group)

T-Group (training group), a group organised to influence its members within a system of interpersonal relations so as to develop their sociopsychological competence and communication (1) and interaction skills (see Socio-Psychological Training). Initial T-G’s appeared as a practical addition to Kurt Lewin’s school of group dynamics. At present, group dynamics is one of the most widespread models for examining interpersonal relations and group development stages. A T-G. is characterised by short-term existence (from several days to several weeks) and by absence of planned structure, standardisation and regulation. The main T-G. method involves free discussion (see Group Discussion, Method of), without any preliminary plan, combined with role games and other techniques. In order to produce good results, a T-G. should be characterised by mutual trust that would stimulate the participants to interpersonal relations (which they would normally hesitate to establish) and, at the same time, help them understand the processes that take place in their T-G. In critically approaching the practice of T-G., whose efficacy is substantially limited by the artificial situation of training and its separation from the practical activity of a given work collective, one may nonetheless recognise that a T-G. affords certain opportunities for organising group interaction and adjusting and regulating emotions in personal contacts.

Thinking

Thinking, the process of an individual’s cognitive activity, characterised by a generalised and mediated reflection of reality. T. is the object of complex, interdisciplinary studies. The correlation of matter and T., the possibilities and ways of cognising the world with the aid of T. are studied by philosophy. The main forms of T. (concept, judgement, inference} are studied by formal logic. The sociological aspect of studying T. is characterised by an analysis of the process of its historical development depending on the structure of various social formations. Physiology studies brain mechanisms with the aid of which T. is realised. Cybernetics considers T. as an informational process and records common and differing aspects in the work of a computer and in man’s 316 thought activity. Psychology studies T. as cognitive activity, dividing it into types depending on the level of generalisation and character of means used, their novelty for the subject, degree of his activeness, T.’s adequacy to reality. The following types of T. are distinguished: verbal-logical, visual-image, visual-active. There are also theoretical and practical, theoretical and empirical, logical (analytic) and intuitive, realistic and autistic (linked with escape from reality into internal emotional experiences), productive and reproductive, involuntary and voluntary types of T. Like other psychic phenomena, T. is studied by objective methods in psychology. Wide use is made here of all the main methods of collecting empiric material: observation, experiment, talk, study of the product of activity. T. often develops as a process of solving tasks, which are distinguished by conditions and demands. The task must not only be understood by the subject, but also be accepted by him, i.e. correlated with personality’s need-motivational sphere. Thought activity is induced by motives, which are not only the conditions of its development, but are also factors influencing its productivity. A person’s T. is characterised by the unity of the conscious and the unconscious. A big role in thought activity is played by emotions, which guide the search for a problem solution. A product of T. may be the goals of subsequent actions. The studies of goal-formation constitute an important section of the psychology of T. and of personality. They involve studies of the transformation of an external demand into a real goal, the choice of one of the existing demands, the correlation of voluntary and involuntary goal- formation, temporal dynamics of goal- formation, transformation of unconscious anticipations into conscious goals, the singling out of intermediate goals. In the context of the problematics of joint activities and communication (1) T. is studied within the structure of interpersonal relations. T. is an interpretation of the reactions and movements of another person, an interpretation of the results of a person’s object-oriented actions and activity as a whole, a comprehension of another person’s speech products (oral and written). Interpersonal cognition includes the formation of representations of another person’s mode of T., his cognitive style, what he thinks about the subject of T., and what he thinks about what the subject thinks about him, etc. (see Reflexion). T. is included in the structure of influencing another person both in the process of cooperation and in conflict situations. In the course of communication (1) the results of one person’s thought activity (knowledge) are passed on to another person. Knowledge (generalisations) may relate to the objective world or to the process of problem-solving itself (general methods of solution). T. itself may appear as joint, collective activity. Communication necessarily presupposes generalisation. T. is a part and special object of a person’s self- awareness, the structure of which includes seeing oneself as the subject of T., differentiation of "one’s own" and 317 “others’ " thoughts, awareness of unresolved problems as one’s own, awareness of one’s own relation to the problem. The development of T. is studied in the phylogenetic, historical, ontogenetic and functional aspects. Elementary T. appears already in animals and ensures a dynamic, or operational, adjustment of an organism to the demands of the environment, set in the solution of a concrete task. A special link is distinguished in a complex behaviour, viz. a search for the object required. The type of search behaviour is determined by the degree of specialisation of the search (its limitation to a definite range of objects at which the search is directed) and methods used in organising the search. The activeness of a living creature, as expressed in the search of a required object which is lacking, is the most general phylogenetic prerequisite for developed T. The most complex manifestations of T. in higher animals are linked with the production of a “tool”, i.e. an object used as a means of achieving biologically meaningful results. On the historical plane, the development of T. is studied in the context of work as man’s specific activity and the origin of language. With the appearance of the social division of labour into mental and physical, T. acquires the form of independent activity with its own motives, goals, and operations. The method of comparative analysis of thought activity of people living in societies which are at different stages of sociohistorical development has become widespread. At present it is considered proven that verbal-logical T. is the latest product of the historical development of T. and that the transition from visual to abstract T. comprises one of the lines of this development. The ontogenetic development of a child’s T. takes place in the course of his object-oriented activity and communication, and assimilation of social experience. A special role is played by the purposeful influence of an adult in the form of training and education. Visual-active, visual- pictorial and verbal-logical T. are successive stages of the ontogenetic development of T.

Thinking, Creative

Thinking, Creative, a type of thinking characterised by the subject’s creation of a new product and new formations in the very cognitive activity during its creation. These new formations concern motivations, goals, evaluations, meanings. T.,C. is distinguished from processes using ready knowledge and abilities, and called reproductive thinking (see Creative Activity).

Thinking, Intuitive

Thinking, Intuitive, a type of thinking characterised by the speed of the process, lack of clearly defined stages and minimal awareness.

Thinking, Practical

Thinking, Practical, a type of thinking that is usually compared with theoretical thinking (see Thinking, Theoretical). T., P. is associated with setting goals and drawing up plans or projects. It often develops when there is a lack of time, which occasionally makes it even more complicated than theoretical thinking.

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Thinking, Theoretical

Thinking, Theoretical, a type of thinking which is usually distinguished from practical thinking (see Thinking, Practical). T.,T. is directed at the discovery of laws and properties of objects. Fundamental research in science can serve as an example of T.,T.

Thinking, Verbal-Logical

Thinking, Verbal-Logical, a type of thinking characterised by the use of notions, and logical constructs. T.,V.-L. functions on the basis of language and represents the latest stage in the historical and ontogenetic development of thinking. Different types of generalisation are formed and function in the structure of T.,V.-L.

Thinking, Visual-Active

Thinking, Visual-Active, a type of thinking characterised by the fact that a task is solved with the help of a real, physical transformation of the situation, testing of the properties of objects. The elementary forms of T.,V.-A. observed in the higher animals were studied by Ivan Pavlov, Wolfgang Kohler, Natalya LadyginaKotz, and other scientists. In a child, T..V.-A. forms the first stage of the development of thinking. In an adult, T.,V.-A. co-exists with visual-image and verbal-logical thinking.

Thinking, Visual-Image

Thinking, Visual-Image, a type of thinking associated with the notion of situations and changes in them. The multiformity of different real characteristics of an object are reconstructed most fully with the aid of T..V.-I. The image may record simultaneously the object from several viewpoints. An important peculiarity of T.,V.-I. is the establishment of unusual, “ incredible” combinations of objects and their properties. In this capacity T.,V.-I. is practically indistinguishable from imagination. T.,V.-I. is one of the stages of the ontogenetic (see Ontogenesis) development of thinking.

Time (in psychology)

Time (in psychology), a subject of numerous theoretical and experimental studies which mainly include the psychophysicai aspect—a search for mechanisms of the mental reflection of topological (pertaining to sequence and synchronism) and metric (pertaining to duration) characteristics of “ physical” T.; the psychophysiological aspect—study of the effect of biological rhythms at various levels and of regularities inherent in the organisation of “biological” T. upon the dynamics of mental processes; the socio- psychological aspect—the examination of the specifics of man’s reflection of “social” T., and the specifics of this reflection in different communities and historical conditions; and the personality aspect’ study of the temporal organisation of individual life and of the structure of personal psychological time. In addition to the above aspects, one should distinguish the situational, biographical, and historical scales in T. studies. The situational scale involves direct perception and emotional experience of shorttime intervals, non-commensurable with the duration of human life as a whole. By generalising these perceptions and feelings, the individual develops T. concepts in the biographical scale, limited by birth and death. 319 Distinguished are adult and child T. concepts, and those of representatives of various social groups. T. studies performed on the historical scale are designed to clarify the regularities whereby the individual becomes aware of the past and future. The traditional forms of this would be the study of the history of society and one’s own genealogy. As a result, one can conceive the historical past and future as his own past and future, as a possibility for overcoming his own limited life span (see also Psychological Time).

Tiredness

Tiredness, a temporary decrease in work capacity under the effect of a prolonged effort. Arises from exhaustion of individual inner resources and discord of activity-ensuring systems. T. takes on a variety of forms at different levels, viz. behavioural (decline of productivity, reduced work speed and precision); physiological (difficulty in developing conditioned reflexes, increased inertness in dynamics of nervous processes) (see Nervous System); and psychological (declined sensibility; impaired attention, memory, and mental (see Intellect) processes, and shifts in the emotional-motivational (see Emotions) sphere. T. is concomitant with a number of subjective sensations of fatigue. The specifics of T. depends on the type of effort, its application, and on the time needed to restore optima) performance. Basing on this, psychologists distinguish physical, mental, acute, chronic, and other kinds of T. Marginal and pathological states of T. may develop in the absence of measures to reduce T. or eliminate its residual effects. Hence the urgent need for timely diagnosis and prevention of T. Preventive measures would imply rational organisation of labour, optimisation of work and recreation conditions, specialised training, and various means for enhancing individual resistance to T.

Tolerance

Tolerance, absence of or weak response to any unfavourable factor owing to reduced sensibility thereto. For instance, T. to anxiety shows in a higher threshold of emotional response to a threatening situation, and outwardly in stamina, self-control, and the ability to endure prolonged unfavourable effects without reducing one’s adaptability (see Adjustment).

Topological Psychology

Topological Psychology, Kurt Lewin’s theory, according to which human behaviour in the surrounding world may be described by specific mathematical concepts of topology, a science that studies spatial transformations, and by vector analysis. The starting point is the individual’s "life space" taken as an integral field, inside which the individual’s psychological forces ( aspirations, intentions, etc.) with their specific orientation, magnitude and application points (designated by mathematical signs) occur and change. Some areas of the “field” attract the individual, and others would repel him. This quality of objects was termed their valence (either positive or negative), which characterises the motivational structure of his behaviour actuated by the “field” forces. This behaviour is 320 the function of an integral situation involving the individual per se and his psychological “space”, wherein the goals, barriers thereto, etc. are localised. Lewin’s attempt to restructure psychology on the basis of topology failed; yet, his interpretation of motivation as a dynamic "system of tensions", wherein the individual’s motivations and their objects are inseparably represented, formed the foundation of a number of experimental models and methods that led to the establishment of important psychological facts and concepts (see Unaccomplished Action Effect; Level of Aspirations).

Transfer

Transfer, the influence of a previously formed action (skill) on mastering a new action. T. manifests itself in that a new action is mastered more readily and quickly than the previous one. The T. mechanism involves the distinction (not necessarily conscious) by the subject of general elements in the structure of the mastered action and of the one being mastered. The more distinctly these similar elements are distinguished, the more readily and extensively is T. achieved. It may be said that the measure of T. would depend on completeness of the subject’s orientation to the criteria of and grounds for performing an action (see Orientating Basis of Action). T. is insignificant when oriented to external, situational relations, rather than to substantial, basic relations. T. may involve any action components, and also components of a situation in which that action is mastered or applied.

Transference

Transference, a term used in Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis to designate transmission to the psychiatrist of the patient’s emotional attitude towards people significant to the latter, e.g. his father, his mother, and so on. Feelings of love, admiration, respect (positive T.), and also hatred, fear, aversion (negative T.) arise spontaneously in the patient during a psychoanalytical session when the psychiatrist’s behaviour offers no explanatory causes. Freud regarded T. as transmission inherent in any human relationship, and manifesting itself not only in a therapeutic session, but also in the subject’s everyday life.

Trial and Error Method

Trial and Error Method, a method of evolving new forms of behaviour in problem situations. T. and E.M., which is widely used by behaviourism to explain learning as a random activity, became widespread in psychology after the works of Edward Thorndike, according to which blind trials, errors and accidental success, which reinforce successful trials, determine the way of acquiring individual experience by animals and man. In this way the coincidence of behaviour with the environment on a random basis was singled out, which permitted going beyond a strict alternative in interpreting the category of action: either its mechanistic or teleological interpretation. Subsequent study of learning indicated the weakness and limitation of the explanatory force of T. and E.M., for it fails to take into consideration the orientation of each trial inherent in each behaviour, its inclusion in a 321 definite psychic structure. Gestalt psychology subjected T. and E.M. to criticism, counterposing it to problem solution through insight. The inefficiency and theoretical weakness of such contraposition was exposed by Ivan Pavlov. T. and E.M. preserved its significance in only a narrow sphere of artificially created situations; specifically, it was included in the set of the design principles of cybernetic apparatuses.

Tropisms

Tropisms, responses of a plant to an external stimulus (light, gravity, chemical substances, etc.) by growth in a direction determined by the stimulus (see Taxes). Jacques Loeb tried to explain the behaviour of organisms that have a nervous system by T. However, his concept, based on mechanistic determinism, proved scientifically groundless.

Typhlopsychology

Typhlopsychology, a branch of special psychology which examines the mental development of the blind and people with poor eyesight, and ways and means for correcting it in training and education. T. studies the possibility of compensating impaired visual perception by means of other analysers (hearing and tactile sense), and investigates the mental specifics of perception, memory and thinking when there is shortage of information owing to blindness or weak eyesight. A special branch of T. is concerned with the study of the psychology of the blind-deaf-mute people with total early loss of vision and hearing, in whose training and development Soviet T. and surdopsychology have made noticeable progress (Ivan Sokolyansky, Olga Skorokhodova, and Alexander Meshcheryakov). The use of T. results allows to organise a scientifically = based process of training, education and work for the blind and people with weak eyesight.