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Iatrogenic Illness

Iatrogenic Illness, a disorder of the patient’s mental state brought on by some unintentional suggestion by the physician (for example, some careless comment about the illness) and conducive to neurosis. Synonym: a suggested illness.

The Ideal

The Ideal, an object’s special mode of being, its representation (active reflection) in the psychological world and vital activity of the subject. "The ideal is nothing else than the material world reflected by the human mind and translated into forms of thought (Karl Marx). The transformation happens in the process of material and spiritual production, which, in line with society’s requirements, engenders multifarious forms of the reflection of reality in the human brain: sensory and mental images, the methods of their construction and application, spiritual values and orientation. Being derived from the material, the I. acquires a relative independence, thereby becoming an active source of vital activity. Owing to the presence of the I., man is capable not only of reflecting reality but also of transforming it both in his consciousness and in practice. Under certain conditions, the process of transformation can lead to illusory products of the I. that are inadequate to reality. The biological requisites for the I. evolve in animals as the ability to pattern their behaviour off the environment through the "model of the necessary future" (see Physiology of Activeness). However, it is only in the process of labour which creates objects of the material and spiritual culture, including the language and other sign systems, that the brain becomes a substratum of the I. Labour, by transforming the matter of nature, gives it socially meaningful forms which the subject perceives as generalised images of reality. By mastering these images and operating with them, the individual projects the goals and the means of his activity (see Reflection; Psyche; Consciousness; Interiorisation).

Identification

Identification, (1) discerning something or somebody; (2) likening to somebody or something. In the first meaning, the term "I." is used in the psychology of cognitive processes, and also in engineering and juridical psychology, where I. is understood as a process of comparison, collation of an object with another on the basis of a particular sign or property resulting in the ascertainment of their similarity or dissimilarity. The I. process helps in the discernment of images, the formation of generalisations and their classification, analysis of sign systems, etc. When the object of I. is 133 a person, it becomes a process of qualitative identification on whose basis a personality may be assigned to a particular class or type, or be recognised as unique in its own way throughout one’s life. In the second meaning, I. is the emotional cognitive process of the unconscious identification of one subject with another subject, group, or model. The concept of I. was introduced by Sigmund Freud, initially in interpreting the phenomena of pathological depression and, later on, with the aim of analysing dreams and certain processes through which a child assimilates the behavioural pattern of significant others, forms the “ superego”, assumes a female or a male role, etc. In modern psychology the concept of I. encompasses three intersecting areas of psychological reality: (1) the process of unification of the subject with another individual or group on the basis of an established emotional bond, as well as the incorporation as one’s own of their norms, values and standards. This may appear as an open imitation of a model’s gestures and movements, which is particularly visible among preschool children; (2) the perception by the subject of another person as an extension of himself, and projection, i.e. the attribution to that individual of one’s own personal traits, feelings and aspirations; (3) the mechanism of placing oneself in the position of another individual, which appears in the form of immersion, the transfer of one’s own ego into the space and time of another individual and results in the assimilation of another’s personalised meanings. This mechanism evokes corresponding behaviour (see Altriusm; Empathy) and the manifestation of humaneness (see Identification, Collectivism, Personality; Alienation).

Identification, Collectivist

Identification, Collectivist, an attitude the subject holds towards other people which in the nature of the value orientations determining his activities coincides with the attitude towards himself and corresponds to collectivist principles. I.,C. is formed in collective interaction resulting from the practical assimilation of the moral norms of Communist morality and implies the rejection of altruistic all-forgiveness and egoistic pragmatism as regards one’s associates. Humaneness, care for each member of the collective, combined with an exactingness towards him are a display of I.,C. Behaviour in which an individual applies different moral norms to himself and others and places different requirements on himself and others and, proceeding from them, undertakes corresponding actions, is a violation of I.,C. principles. I.,C. incorporates moral values and norms of behaviour corresponding to the moral ideals of the Soviet people. It reaches its highest form in groups of the collective type, which are the basic cell of socialist society. One manifestation of I.,C. is efficient group emotional identification as a form of interpersonal relations, which helps organise the activities of the members of the collective directed towards achieving a group goal and eliminating tendencies which lead to frustration.

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Identification Features

Identification Features, the sum of an object’s properties, basing on which one would identify that object as pertaining to a certain class. A person may distinguish and take account of I. P. both consciously and unconsciously. In the course of ontogenetic (see Ontogenesis) and functional development of perceptual processes (see Perception), one would continually distinguish new I.F. and this would ensure integral identification of complex objects that had not been previously perceived as a whole.

Ideomotor Act

Ideomotor Act, the transition from the idea of a muscle movement to the realisation of this movement, i.e. the appearance of nerve impulses ensuring the movement as soon as the thought of it emerges. I.A’s are involuntary, unconscious and, as a rule, have weakly expressed spatial characteristics. The principle of I.A. was discovered by the English physician, David Hartley, in the 18th century and later developed by his countryman, William Carpenter. Further research has shown that motions accompanying the process of imagining a movement cannot always be classified as involuntary, and that muscle contractions leading to particular movements can be meaningful. At present there are two points of view regarding the I.A. psychological mechanism. The first is based on Ivan Pavlov’s notions that I.A’s are controlled by effectory impulses emanating from certain cortical cells. The second view stems from the concept of a circuit regulation of movements (N.A. Bernstein). I.A’s are controlled by feedback signals issued by the movement organs. Sensibility to muscle micromovements in I.A. that are imperceptible to an outside observer makes it possible to foretell the involuntary movement conceived by another individual.

Illusions of Perception

Illusions of Perception, an inadequate reflection of the object perceived and its properties. Sometimes the term I. of P. is used to denote the very configurations of the irritants causing such inadequate perception. At present the most widely studied I. of P. are the illusory effects observed in a visual perception of two-dimensional contour images. These "optico-geometric illusions" consist of a seeming distortion of the metric proportions of the fragments of an image (see Fig. 2). The phenomenon of bright contrast is another class of I. of P. For instance, a grey strip against a light background seems darker than against a black background. There are many illusions of apparent movement: autokinetic movement (the chaotic movement of an objectively fixed source of light which is observed in total darkness); stroboscopic movement (the impression of a moving object where there is rapid consecutive representation of two immovable stimuli in a close space proximity) ; and induced movement (the seeming movement of an objectively fixed object in the direction opposite to the movement of the surrounding background). One can also regard illusions of a non-visual nature as I. of P. Such is, for instance, the illusion of Charpentier: of two objects of equal 135 weight but different dimensions the lesser one seems to be heavier. There are also various attitude illusions studied in detail by Dmitri Uznadze and his pupils. Some I. of P. have a complex nature: for instance, in a state of weightlessness, unusual simulation of the vestibule impedes the appraisal of the position of visual and acoustic objects. There is no common theory that can explain all I. of P. It is believed that illusory effects, as was shown by the German scientist Hermann Helmholtz, are the result of the work in unusual conditions of the same mechanisms of perception which in normal conditions ensure its constancy.

Image

Image, a subjective picture of the world or its fragments, including the subject itself, other people, the spatial surroundings, and the temporal sequence of events. From the viewpoint of the Marxist theory of cognition, I. is a form of reflection of objective reality. In psychology, the concept of I. is used in several meanings. In addition to a broad interpretation synonymous to the concepts “reflection” and "psyche", I. is traditionally associated with preferentially perceptual (see Perception) forms of knowledge. For instance, in describing the development of thinking in a child, one would distinguish the stage of visual thinking, which differs from earlier and later stages in that it is based on visual representations and their transformations as a means for solving mental tasks. When studying ontogenetic development (see Ontogenesis), I. involves interiorisation of schemes of action with objects (Jerome Bruner, Alexei Zaporozhets, and Jean Piaget). In his works, the Soviet psychologist Alexei N. Leontiev advanced a hypothesis that the I. of the world is a multi-dimensional psychological formation, whose five “ quasidimensions” include space-time coordinates and the “quasidimension” of meaning. The latter resultant may in turn be conceived, through corresponding mathematical processing (multi- 136 dimensional scaling, cluster analysis, etc.), in the form of diverse geometric models, and subjective semantic spaces. An important distinction between a “naive” and “critical” picture of the world, depending correspondingly on a commonsense or scientific approach to interpreting mental process, was made by representatives of Gestalt psychology. Detailed study of I. is the subject of cognitive psychology. A suggestion was made about the existence of a hypothetical neurophysiological structure, a "visual buffer" whose activation by sensorial information or evidence from long-term memory leads to the emergence of a visual I. Yet, the empirically revealed correspondence may be explained only genetically, by the origin of the inner plan of activity from real objective actions. The difference between the two types of I’s may be evidenced by differences between their subjective distinctness, and also by the fact that the I’s of representations never localise in the outer spatial surroundings, the only exceptions being the so-called eidetic images (see Eidetism) and true hallucinations, which are caused by some mental disorders. These distinctions are occasionally weakened in the altered state of consciousness, for instance, in dreams and drowsy states (hypnagogic I’s) (see Sleep, Hypnosis). Conversely, pseudohallucinations are clearly distinguished from perceptual I’s (Viktor Kandinsky).

Imagination

Imagination, a mental process manifesting in: (1) construction of the image of the means and the result of the subject’s objective activities; (2) development of a programme of behaviour when the problem situation is unclear; (3) production of images which do not programme, but substitute activity; and (4) creation of images according to the object’s description. A major significance of I. is in that it allows to visualise the result of work prior to starting it, and thereby to orient man in the course of activity. Simulation by means of I. of a model of the final or intermediate product of labour helps its objective implementation. "At the end of every labour process, we get a result that already existed in the imagination of the labourer at its commencement" (Karl Marx, Capital, Vol. I, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1974, p. 1-74). In effect, the fundamental distinction of human labour from the instinctive behaviour of animals is in that man conceives the anticipated result with the aid of I. I. is involved in any labour process, and is an essential aspect of any creative activity—the arts, designing, or science. In the course of activity, I. comes out in unity with thinking. The involvement of I. or thinking in the process of activity depends on the extent to which the problem situation is unclear, and on the sufficiency or insufficiency of initial information about the task in hand. If the initial data are unknown, the solution of the task is basically subordinate to the laws of thinking; however, if these data are hardly analysable, I. mechanisms begin to operate. Quite often, the same task may be solved both by means of I. and thinking. I. is valuable in that it allows to 137 make a decision in the absence of sufficient knowledge to solve the task. Yet, in this case, the ways for solving the task are often insufficiently exact, and this restricts I. I. processes are of analytico-synthetic nature, as also are the processes of thinking, memory, and perception. I’s main trend is to transform memory concepts to ultimately ensure the creation of an a fortiori novel situation. I. mechanisms essentially transform representations to create new images based on already available ones. I. is a reflection of reality in novel, strange, unexpected combinations and associations. In I. representations are synthesised in various forms, viz. in agglutination, when qualities, properties, and parts of objects uncombinable in reality are actually combined; in exaggeration, when the object’s size is intentionally enlarged or diminished, or when the qualities of its elements are changed; in accentuation, when the object’s features are stressed; in schematising or smoothing out object’s distinctions, and in revealing their similar features; and in typifying or distinguishing substantially recurring elements in homogeneous phenomena and their embodiment in concrete images. By degree of the implementation, one would distinguish passive and active I. Passive I. is characterised by the creation of images that are not materialised, or programmes that are either not implemented or altogether unimplementable. In this case, I. comes out as a substitute of activity, as its surrogate, by means of which a person would dismiss the need to act. Passive I. may be intentional or unintentional. Unintentional passive I. is observed in weakened activities of the mind, in impaired consciousness, in a half-sleepy state, and in sleep. Intentional passive I. creates images (fancies) unconnected with the will, which in fact could help translate them into reality. Prevalence in I. processes of fancies is indicative of certain defects in personality development. Active I. may be creative and reproducive. Creative I. arising in labour assumes that a person objectifies his own images in original and valuable products. Creative I. is an inseparable aspect of creative activity in engineering, the arts, etc. Reproductive I. is essentially based on the creation of various images corresponding to descriptions. I. is not always instantly actualised in practice. Quite often it takes the form of specific inner activities, whereby the person in question creates an image of some desirable future, i.e. indulges in day- dreaming. To dream of something is a requisite for transforming reality, a motive of activity whose final completion has proved delayed. Fantasy is a synonym for I.

Imitation

Imitation, the act of following some example or model. I. occurs at various ages of individual development. Despite outward similarity, I. in various age groups conceals different psychological mechanisms. In infants, I. of adult movements and vocal sounds represents an attempt to establish an initial contextual contact. In preschool age, I. is a way to penetrate into the semantic structures of human activity. 138 It passes several stages and changes together with changes in the main activity at this age, viz., topical and roleplaying games, in which the child would initially imitate adult characteristics simulated in a game and most open to him to only gradually start to imitate the aspects of behaviour that really reflect the meaning of a given situation. In teenagers, I. is designed to manifest outwardly (and sometimes also innerly self-identification with some specific significant personality (see Significant Other; Referentiality) or with a generalised stereotype of behavioural and persona! characteristics (see Stereotype Social). In adults, I. comes out as an element of learning in certain types of professional activity (sports, arts, etc.).

Imitation by Animals

Imitation by Animals, a specific form of training (see Learning by Animals) during communication, when one animal follows the example of another. There are instinctive I. by A., i.e. reciprocal stimulation (animals joining those feeding or birds taking wing) and imitational learning. In the latter case, innate behavioural forms would develop through vicarious learning (particularly in ontogenesis’, imitation by young of actions of adult species). The topmost manifestation of imitational learning, i.e. imitational problem solving (merely through observation of another individual’s actions, is seldom observed, mainly in experimental conditions. I. by A. is an important factor of group behaviour.

Immediacy Postulate

Immediacy Postulate, a proposition, according to which external irritants, by affecting psyche, unambiguously determine its manifestations and related reactions of the subject. I.P. is based on the following binomial scheme of psychological analysis which ignores factors determining that psyche: effect on the subject’s receptor (perceptual) systems—>- responses (either subjective or objective) caused by that effect. In the history of psychology, I.P. took on different forms, viz., in the principle of "closed natural causation" (Wiihelm Wundt), according to which mental effects are essentially based only on psychological causes, and the principle of "psychophysical interaction" (Gustav Fechner), which claims that an external physical effect would unambiguously determine the sensation caused thereby. I.P. is most clearly pronounced in the behaviourist central scheme (stimulus -»- reaction). Acceptance of I.P. leads either to ignoring the subject’s activity, or to its explanation by idealistically interpreted factors: apperception, intention, etc. In Soviet psychology, I.P. is overcome within the framework of the theory of attitude and the activity approach.

Implicit Theory of Personality

Implicit Theory of Personality, (1) the totality of chiefly unconscious suppositions about motives of behaviour and personality structure; (2) the totality of notions regarding the link between individual personality traits which form a general impression about a person quite often on the basis of sparce informal ion concerning his actions and deeds. Having discovered one or several individual psychological 139 traits in another person, the subject automatically ties them in with other traits incorporated in his own I.T. of P. and concludes that these traits must be typical of the other person. Despite its unscientific basis, the I.T. of P. exists as a product of common sense influencing the perception, understanding and appraisal of one person by another and sometimes serving as a sociopsychological basis for bias. In different cultures I.T’s of P. vary, which can affect understanding between their representatives. The I.T. of P. problem is studied by methods of psychosemantics. Synonyms of the term "I.T. of P." are "naive concept of the personality" and "the common sensical theory of the personality”.

Impression (among animals)

Impression (among animals), a specific form of learning by animals. See Imprinting.

Imprinting

Imprinting, a special form of learning (see Learning by Animals) among higher vertebrates which fixes the distinctive signs of the objects of some innate behavioural actions of the parents (being simultaneously the carriers of the typical signs of the species), brothers and sisters, food objects ( including animal-victims), etc. I. occurs chiefly at the early stages of post-natal development and takes place only within a definite, usually very limited (“ sensitive”, “critical”) period of time. The process of I. happens very quickly (often with the first encounter with the object of I.) and without outside reinforcement. The result of I. is, as a rule, irreversible. I. ensures for animals the protection of the descendants (the following of the parents by children), recognition of parents, members of the community, relatives, future sexual partners, landmarks, etc.

Inclinations

Inclinations, innate anatomic and physiological peculiarities of the nervous system, the brain making up a natural basis for the developments of abilities. I. are not specific for the concrete content and forms of activity; they are multifarious. Yet it would be wrong to believe that I. are absolutely “neutral” as regards future abilities. Thus, the peculiarities of the visual analyser would have a sure effect on the abilities involving the participation of this analyser, while the peculiarities of the brain’s speech centres would have a more definite effect on the types of activity connected with the speech abilities. So, individual I. are somewhat selective and vary in relation to various types of activity. There are considerable individual distinctions in the structure of men’s brain tissue, but the role of such morphological distinctions as conditions for the development of mental faculties remains unclear, Soviet psychology began to obtain concrete scientific data on I. following the study of the innate properties of the nervous system and their significance for individual psychological distinctions (the school of Boris Teplov).

Individual

Individual, (1) a man as individual natural being, a Homo sapiens, a product of the phylogenetic and ontogenetic development, as a unity of the innate and the acquired (see 140 Genotype; Phenotype), as a carrier of individually peculiar traits (inclinations; drives, etc.); (2) an individual representative of a community of men; a social being transgressing the bounds of his natural (biological) limitations, using implements, signs and through them influencing his own behaviour and psychic processes (see Higher Mental Functions; Consciousness). Both meanings of the term "I." are interconnected and describe man as a separate and specific being. The most general characteristics of I. are: the integrity of psychophysiological organisation; stability in interaction with the outside world; activeness. The indication of integrity points to the systematic nature of links between multiform functions and mechanisms realising vital relations of I. Stability determines the preservation of the basic attitudes of I. towards reality, at the same time presupposing the existence of elements of plasticity, flexibility and variability. I.’s activeness ensures his ability to change and dialectically combines dependence on a situation with overcoming its immediate impact.

Individual Psychology

Individual Psychology, a trend in psychoanalysis which is an offshoot of Freudianism and was developed by Alfred Adler. I.P. proceeds from the supposition that the structure of the personality (individuality) of a child is formed in early childhood (before 5 years) as a kind of a special "life style" which predetermines his entire subsequent mental development. Because of the underdevelopment of his body organs, the child experiences a feeling of inferiority and the goals he forms are an attempt to overcome this feeling. When these goals are realistic, the personality develops normally; but when they are unreal, he becomes neurotic and asocial. Early childhood is the period when a conflict arises between the inbred social feeling and the feeling of inferiority (see Complex) which brings into action the mechanisms of compensation and supercompensation. This engenders the striving for personal power, supremacy over others and deviation from the socially valued norms of behaviour. The task of psychotherapy is to assist the neurotic (see Neurotism) subject in realising that his motives and goals do not correspond to reality so that his urge to compensate his inferiority can find expression in creative efforts. This ideas of I.P. gained currency in the West not only in the psychology of personality but also in social psychology, where they were used in group therapy methods (see Psychotherapy, Group). I.P. also influenced the adherents of neo-Freudianism. The methodological weakness of I.P. lies first of all in the fact that it defends the concept of the predestination of mental development, which is conceived teleologically as achieving the goals originating in the depths of the personality.

Individual Style of Activity

Individual Style of Activity, a general characteristic of the individual psychological peculiarities of a person which are formed and revealed in his activity. I.S. of A. is dependent on the specifics of upbringing, the psychological qualities of the subject determined 141 by the properties of his nervous system, and on the peculiarities of his inclusion into constantly repeated standard situations (in production, etc.). The study of I.S. of A. makes it possible to forecast with great probability the effectiveness of the activity (Yevgeni Klimov).

Individuality

Individuality, a human being characterised by socially meaningful distinctions from other people; the distinction of the psyche and the personality of the individual, its idiosyncrasy. I. is revealed in the traits of man’s temperament, character, in the specificity of interests, the properties of the perceptual processes (see Perception) and intellect, needs and capabilities. The anatomic physiological inclinations which are transformed in the process of education having a socially conditioned nature constitute the requisites for forming man’s I., which gives rise to a wide variety of I. manifestations.

Induction

Induction, the movement of knowledge from singular assertions to general postulates. I. is closely connected with deduction. Logic treats I. as a kind of inference discerning perfect and imperfect I. Psychology studies the development and deviation from inductive reasoning. The movement from isolated to general knowledge is analysed in its determination by all mental processes, the structure of thinking as a whole. Experiments with the formation of artificial concepts serve as an example of experimental studies of inductive reasoning.

Induction of Nervous Processes

Induction of Nervous Processes, the emergence of a nervous process with an opposite valence following the existing process (consecutive induction) or its spatial limits (simultaneous induction). I. of N.P. was described by the English physiologist Charles Sherrington (1906). It is positive if the initial process is inhibition followed, according to the laws of I. by exitation, and it is negative if this correlation is reversed. The notion was widely used by Ivan Pavlov to explain the regularities of higher nervous activity.

Inductor

Inductor, the subject addressing a message to the recipient. Synonym—- communicator.

Infantilism, Personal

Infantilism, Personal, preservation in psyche and behaviour of an adult of traits typical of a child’s age. The individual afflicted by infantilism ( infantile) is distinguished by the immaturity of his emotional-volitional sphere even with a normal or accelerated level of physical and mental development. This is reflected in a lack of independence in decisions and actions, a sense of vulnerability, a low capacity for self-criticism, in heightened demands on others regarding care of him/her, and in various compensatory reactions (fantasies replacing real actions, egocentrism, etc.).

Inference

Inference, a logical form of thinking (see also Concept; Judgement). I. is characterised by a process of logical reasoning by which a specific conclusion necessarily follows from a set of 142 general premises. I. classifications are developed by logic, whereas psychology examines the developmental conditions of deductive (discursive) reasoning and its distorted forms. For instance, the former is studied by psychology to assess the extent to which an individual trusts certain syllogistic premises and the conclusions derived therefrom.

Inferiority Complex

Inferiority Complex, a central notion in Alfred Adler’s individual psychology according to which, due to " defective bodily organs", a sense of his own inferiority is formed in a child. The way of overcoming this complex determines the individual’s "life style”.

Informant

Informant, the subject included in an experiment and informing the experimenter (directly or through a medium, by a written answer) of the peculiarities of his interaction with the object.

Ingroup Favouritism

Ingroup Favouritism, the desire to somehow favour members of one’s own group as compared to members of another group. I.F. may show both in outwardly perceived behaviour in various situations of social interaction and in social perception processes (see Perception, Social), for instance, in forming attitudes, opinions, etc. relating to members of one’s own and other groups. I.F. is the most widespread result of intergroup discrimination, albeit not the only one. The degree of I.F. may’be a characteristic of inter- group perception and intergroup interaction. Unlike some foreign authors who postulate that I.F. is essentially primordial, universal and inevitable in all conditions of intergroup interaction, Soviet psychologists have theoretically and experimentally shown that this phenomenon is secondary and dependent on a number of activity and social factors, and, notably, not typical of collectives.

Inhibition

Inhibition, an active process inseparably associated with excitation and leading to delayed activity of nerve centres or functional organs. In the former case, I. is called central, and in the latter peripheral. Peripheral I. was discovered in 1840 by Ernst Weber and his brother Edouard Frederic, who obtained delayed systole in rhytmic stimulation of the vagus nerve. Central I. was discovered by the Russian physiologist Ivan Sechenov in 1863. This had a profound effect on the study of not only neurodynamics, but also regulation of mental processes. For a long time, the nature of I. remained obscure. Physiologists initially identified it with passive state or exhaustion of corresponding cells. At present, two different ways of cell activity inhibition have been revealed: I. may either result from activation of specific inhibitory structures or be caused by preliminary cell stimulation. I. is an essential component of integrative, coordinated activity of the nervous system. The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov distinguished the following two basic types of cortical I. in higher nervous activity, namely, external or unconditioned 143 I., and internal or conditioned I., differing from each other in origin and development. These types of I. allow the body to selectively respond to environmental effects and to adequately distribute such responses in time; in other words, together with excitation processes they provide the body’s optimal adaptation to continually changing environmental conditions.

Inhibition, Conditioned

Inhibition, Conditioned, a variety of cortical inhibition, which occurs in neural structures directly involved in developing a conditioned reflex when the conditioned signal is not reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus. The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov distinguished four types of I., C.: (1) extinctive inhibition, which occurs at extinction of a conditioned reflex; (2) differentiated inhibition, which occurs when one stimulus is continually reinforced by an unconditioned reflex, and the other stimuli are not; (3) conditioned inhibition, which develops when a given isolated stimulus can still cause a response; and (4) delayed inhibition, which occurs when an unconditioned stimulus is manifested some time after the conditioned stimulus. Interaction of I.,C. and excitation plays a highly important role in the adaptation of living organisms; it also ensures active functioning of the brain. Successful development of both processes in ontogenesis helps form more complex types of generalisation in children. In old age, all types of L,C. are difficult to develop. For instance, a switch-over from jone kind of activity to another one is inhibited.

Inhibition, Proactive

Inhibition, Proactive, an integral neural process that delays learning because the replies relating to the preceding elements of the material inhibit answers relating to its subsequent elements. The term I., P. was suggested in 1928 by the French psychologist Marcel Foucault, who relied on the concept of internal (conditioned) inhibition introduced by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov distinguished it along with external inhibition (inhibition of given activity by orientating reflex to some external stimulus) and protective inhibition (which protects nerve centres from overexhaustion). Internal inhibition is observed at extinction of conditioned reflexes, and also when they differentiate in the forming of delayed and trace conditioned reflexes. The effect of I., P. on the reply is the stronger the greater the volume of the material learned prior to a given reproduced element is and the more complex and yet identical with the current was the preceding activity. Sometimes, psychologists use the term progressive ( internal) inhibition as a synonym for I., P.

Inhibition, Retroactive

Inhibition, Retroactive, an integral neural process that delays learning because the replies to subsequent elements of the memorised material produce an inhibitory effect on answers relating to the preceding elements; in other words, the individual forgets the previous material under the influence of subsequent memorisation. The term I.,R. was suggested in 1928 by the French psychologist Marcel Foucault. 144 Numerous investigations have established that the effect of I.,R. on the reply becomes stronger with more numerous elements memorised after the element to be reproduced, and also with subsequent activity more complex than and similar to the one being reproduced. The term "regressive (internal) inhibition" is sometimes used as a synonym for I.,R.

Inhibition, Social

Inhibition, Social, see Social Facilitation.

Inhibition, Unconditioned

Inhibition, Unconditioned, a variety of cortical inhibition. Unlike conditioned inhibition, (see Inhibition, Conditioned) , I.,U. occurs spontaneously and involves: (1) inductive (external) inhibition, i.e. urgent termination of conditioned reflex activity under alien stimuli; its biological significance is in that it mainly ensures orientating reaction to a sudden stimulus; and (2) protective inhibition occurring under stimuli that excite corresponding cortical structures to a performance limit higher than that inherent in them and thereby provide a real possibility for retaining or restoring that performance.

Insight

Insight, a sudden comprehension ( without use-of previous experience) of important relationships and the structure of the situation as a whole which makes it possible to find an intelligent solution to a problem. The concept of I. was introduced by Gestalt psychology. In the work of the German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler on the instinct of anthropoid apes, it was contrasted with the behaviourist (see Behaviourism) notion of a gradual and “blind” learning by the trial and error method, while in the studies of the German psychologists Max Wertheimer and Karl Duncker this concept is also applied to describe the thought processes of man and is interpreted as a special act separate from other intellectual operations. A descriptive rather than explanatory importance should be attached to the concept of I. The scientific interpretation of I. is connected with the recognition of the decisive importance of understanding this phenomenon, its “preparation” in previous behaviour and activity, and of the role played by the organisation of the understanding of the situation, particularly as applied to man, with the help of specific sociohistorical means (language, various schemes, etc).

Inspiration

Inspiration, a state of specific tension and upsurge of the spirit, of human creative excitement leading to the arisal or realisation of some scheme and idea for producing a work of science, art, or technology. I. is characterised by man’s elevated overall activeness, unusual productivity of his activities, awareness of readily accomplished creative work, experience of deep emotional involvement in creative work. Apparent unawareness of the creative process during I. results from maximal awareness of the creative work itself; of extreme clarity of consciousness; of peculiar influx and clearing up of thoughts and images; and of extraordinary acuteness of memory, 145 attention, and passionate will aimed at implementing the idea. Despite all its apparent spontaneity, I. is generally the result of intense preliminary work.

Instinct

Instinct, an evolutionally established, genetically determined predisposition of a representative of a biological species for carrying out a stereotyped set of biologically purposeful actions which make it possible to obtain certain results without anticipating them and without preliminary instructions on how to achieve them. The term "I." is commonly used to denote the most conservative and stereotyped innate automatisms (in animals) and littlerealised, unconscious aspects of the purposeful behaviour against the background of a strong affect (in man). The notion of I. is closely connected with the idea of existence of inherited programmes of behaviour typical of a particular species which is aimed at satisfying the vital needs of the organism. It can be interpreted from three viewpoints: (1) its genetic basis; (2) its neurophysiological mechanisms; and (3) the totality of its behavioural manifestations. Historically formed in antiquity (Chrysippus) as a kind of antithesis to the notion of intellect, by the early 20th century the notion of I. had come a long way in its development and concrete definition in the works of philosophers (Blaise Pascal, Etienne Condillac, Herbert Spencer), biologists (Jean Lamarck, Charles Darwin, Jacques Loeb), clinicists (Pierre Janet, Sigmund Freud), physiologists ( Charles Sherrington, Ivan Pavlov), psychologists (William Mcdougall) and naturalist-zoologists (C. Lloyd-Morgan, W. A Wagner). The contradictoriness and complexity of I. is explained by the fact that from the very beginning this notion fused a wide gamut of future key scientific concepts concerning behaviour—motive, image, action and their derivatives and components. Moreover, this fusion took on a form which made it extremely difficult to make their separate experimental control. For that reason, untill the end of the 1950s the concept of I. for the most part, was elaborated in two, relatively isolated, directions—psycho- analysis (Sigmund Freud and his followers) and comparative ethology ( Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen). On the basis of vast empirical material, these two groups isolated in the I. structure such functional elements as "final acts", "complexes of fixed actions’", “substituting” forms of activity, "key stimuli" and "critical periods" of their “imprinting” (in a number of aspects consonant with the ideas of Ivan Pavlov and N. A. Bernstein). This played an important role in overcoming behaviourist trends. At the same time, the narrow phenomenologism, and, in a number of cases an outright reactionary character of the methodology of I. investigators (lack of statistics and control, attempts to ascribe to I. a monopoly role in human behaviour, claims on socio-biological generalisations, and so on) could not but erect certain barriers for assimilating the positive aspects of these achievements. The successes scored in endocrinology, behavioural genetics, anthropology, behavioural ethology and comparative 146 physiology of the sensor systems have played a major part in the interdisciplinary integration of the notions on the nature of I. The discovery in the evolutionally most ancient, sub-cortex sections of the hypothalamic zones of “pleasure” and “pain” (James Olds, Jose Delgado), as well as recticular centres controlling the functions of breathing^ sleeping, wakening, satisfying thirst and a number of other integral instincts of similar acts (Horace Magoun, and others), has also contributed to the extension of the knowledge about I. As a result of the synthesis of these data in modern psychophysiology (Pyotr Anokhin, Pavel Simonov), a general idea has been formed of I. as a complex, species-determined hierarchically-organised mechanism of “ discharging” the dominant biological motivations in which, with the development of a new cortex, the boundary between the innate and the acquired is becoming ever more relative.

Instinctive Behaviour of Animals

Instinctive Behaviour of Animals, the totality of the components of behavior serving as a basis of animal activities inherited, inbred and common for all representatives of the species which has been formed in the process of development of a particular species, i.e. in phylogenesis. In the process of individual development, i.e. in ontogenesis, I.B. of A. is formed in combination and interaction with the processes of learning (see Learning by Animals), does not need exercise, is preserved without periodical reinforcement and is notable for stability, limited individual changeability and autonomy in relation to the short-term changes in the animal habitat. The relative “ expediency” of I.B. of A., directed towards the survival of the species and the continuation of the genus, has developed as a result of natural selection. Instinctive acts forming I.B. of A. include  ^^1^^ sets of precisely coordinated movements, poses, sounds, skin reactions (secretion, changes of coloration), etc. The adaptability and efficiency of I.B. of A. is secured by "innate releasers"—neuro-sensor systems tuning in the analysers to the perception of "key stimuli", which is conducive to their recognition, integration of the corresponding sensations and desinhibition (or activation) of the nerve centres involved in this act. The key stimuli are simple signs of the biologically meaningful animals, ₍plants, objects of inanimate nature (their form, size, movement, colour, smell, etc.) or space relationships, correlation of the parts, relative size, etc.).

Instrumental Actions of Animals

Instrumental Actions of Animals, a specific form in which animals handle objects when one object (instrument) works on another object or animal. This results in mediated (by the instrument) physical relationship between the animal and the affected object. I.A. of A. are observed in few insect species, in birds, and in mammals (slightly more often in apes, for instance, when the latter smash food object with a stone, comb themselves with some foreign object, establish contact by means of some object, or throw an object in the direction of an enemy). Sometimes, the object is 147 preliminarily adapted for use as an implement. I.A. of A. of highly developed apes contributed to the origin of labour activity in ancient humans. In laboratory conditions, I.A. of A. are used to study animals’ psychic capabilities, for instance, those pertaining to their intellectual faculties.

Integrity of Perception

Integrity of Perception, a property of perception consisting in that every object and, moreover, spatial objective situation are perceived as a stable systematic whole, even if some parts of that whole are unobservable (at the moment, say, the back side of an object). The problem of I. of P. was initially studied experimentally by representatives of Gestalt psychology. However, they presented it as the original Gestalt property determined by laws of consciousness. Soviet psychology believes that I. of P. reflects the integrity objectively inherent in the perceived. The image thai forms during the reflection of reality is highly redundant, meaning that a given totality of image components contains information not only about itself, but also about other components, and about the image as a whole. For instance, an observer who in certain perceptual conditions could see a passer’s-by head and shoulders, would perceive the posture of his arms, torso, and even type of gait. The distinctness of that perception would depend on anticipation of elements that cannot be seen at the moment.

Intellect

Intellect, a relatively stable structure of the mental abilities of Ihe individual. A number of psychological concepts of I. identify it with a system of mental operations, with the style and strategy of problem solving, with the efficacy of the individual approach to a particular situation requiring cognitive activity combined with the cognitive style, etc. Western psychology usually interprets I. as a bio- psychological adaptation to the existing life circumstances (Willian Stern, Jean Piaget). The first attempts to study the productive, creative components of I. were made by representatives of Gestalt psychology (Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler) who elaborated the concept of insight. In the early 20th century, French psychologists Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon suggested that the level of mental giftedness should be established by special tests (see Intelligence Tests). Their works initiated the currently widespread, pragmatic interpretation of I. as an ability to tackle specific tasks, to effectively take part in social and cultural life, and to effectively adapt oneself. In their interpretation, they put forward the idea of the existence of basic I. structures independent of any cultural influences. To improve diagnostic methods, various studies have been made (usually by the factor analysis) of this structure. At the same time, different authors single out varying quantities of the basic "factors of I."—from one to two to 120. This fragmentation of I. into a multitude of components impede its comprehension as an integral whole. Soviet psychology proceeds from the principle of the integrity of I. and its connection with personality. Much attention is paid to the study of 148 interrelationship between practical and theoretical I., and its dependence on the emotional and volitional personality traits. The unsoundness of racist assertions about inbred differences between various nations and social groups was exposed. Proceeding from the MarxistLeninist methodology, Soviet psychologists recognise the dependence of human mental abilities on the socio- economic conditions of life. The determination of the content of I. and the peculiarities of the methods of measuring it depend on the nature of the corresponding socially meaningful sphere of activity of the individual (learning, production, politics, etc.). The term "artificial /." is being used more and more frequently due to the successes of the scientific and technological revolution—the development of cybernetics, the theory of information, and computer technology. Comparative psychology is dealing with the intellect of animals.

Intellect of Animals

Intellect of Animals, the highest form of mental activity of animals ( monkeys, apes and other vertebrates) characterised by the reflection of not only the object components of the environment but also their relationships and connections (situations). I. of A. is also marked by non-stereotyped solutions of complex problems by various means of transfer and use of different operations mastered as a result of previous individual experience. The transfer occurs due to both the similarity of objects and the similarity of relationships between them. The groundwork for the solution of a problem is laid by specific, preliminary actions divorced from any immediate biological mean- | ing, sometimes as a search for or preparation of a tool (see Instrumental Actions of Animals) . I. of A. is practically indivisible from complex skills (see Learning by Animals) and is rooted in intensive and variable manipulation [see Manipulation (by Animals)], as well as a broad sensory j (visual) generalisation. I. of A. is re- j vealed in thinking, which, in animals, | is always of a sensory-motor nature, is relevant to the object and finds expression in practical analysis and synthesis of relationships to be established between various phenomena (and objects) directly perceived in a specific situation. It is entirely biologically governed—the fact which determines its qualitative distinction from human thinking, with even anthropoid apes lacking abstract conceptual thinking and comprehension of basic causeand-effect links.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

p Intelligence Quotient (IQ), relation of the so-called mental age (MA) to the real, chronological age (CA) of a given person according to the formula:

The mental age is determined by the results of testing with the aid of one of the intelligence scales (see Intelligence Tests) . The majority of diverse tests included in intelligence scales comprise tasks the fulfilment of which implies the mastery of logical, logico- perceptual and arithmetic operations, general level of information, orientation in practical situations, voluntary memory, 149 etc. When constructing age intelligence scales, a psychologist, guided by experience and intuition, selects tasks which by the material they include (terms, notions, graphic depictions, ejc.), and nature of the stimulated mental actions should be solvable by the individuals of the ages embraced by the scale in a given social community. This is usually experimentally tested on representative age samples. The procedure of obtaining the IQ is as follows. First the subject is given tasks which correspond to an age a year earlier than his own; the idea is to obtain from him, following a “lowering” age scale, five correct answers in succession. In this way the intellectual "base age" is recorded. Further he should be set tasks moving “upward” on the scale until five incorrect answers in succession are received. The test ends with this. Then "base age" tests score is added to the score of correct replies. A special table is used to determine to which mental age the obtained result corresponds. After this it is calculated according to the IQ formula. In interpreting an IQ we should bear in mind that this quotient does not measure any mental or intellectual ability that could be characteristic of all social communities; still less founded is the claim that it could be used to diagnose some inborn or hereditary "general giftedness”.

Intelligence Tests

Intelligence Tests, a technique of psychodiagnosis that have become widespread in the United States and some other Western countries and are designed to reveal the extent to which sub-

jects have mastered actions utilising mainly verbal, numerical and graphic material. The origin of I.T. is usually associated with a series of tests devised by the French psychologist Alfred Binet and his colleagues. Test results are often expressed in intelligence quotients. At present, many investigators are inclined to infer that I.T. establish the degree to which an individual has been brought within the reach of the culture of a social community represented in the I.T. and in the testing procedure per se. In determining the actions to be performed and the material to be used, the I.T. authors actually proceed from their common idea of the demands made by the social community to which they belong as to the intellectual development of the "average man" from that community. At the same time, they view I.T. simply as a premise for successful adjustment to those requirements. Interpretation of I.T. results has become a controversial issue in Western Europe and the United States, since subjects belonging to dominant classes generaHy show higher results than those from exploited classes and oppressed ethnic groups. Reactionary psychologists claim that these distinctions are allegedly genetically predetermined. I.T. are also used in clinical practice for general and differentiated diagnosis of persons with anomalous mental development.

Intent

Intent, orientation of consciousness, thinking towards a certain object.

Intention

Intention, a conscious determination to complete an action in conformity with 150 a planned programme aimed at achieving a presumed result. When one expects the fulfilment of complex, lengthy, uncustomary or strenuous actions, I. would come out as an element of inner preparation to achieve them (see Will).

Interaction of Analysers

Interaction of Analysers, a manifestation of the unity of the sensorial sphere. Changes in the functional state of one analyser as a result of stimulation by another have been studied most fully. Such phenonfena were described as early as the 18th century by the Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov, who looked for relevant explanations in physics. Abundant experimental material on I. of A. accumulated by different researchers was systematised by the Soviet physiologist Sergei Kravkov (1948). I. of A. also shows in joint work of analysers that provide the subject with information on aspects of the surrounding world about which no single analyser itself affords information, e.g. binocular assessment of an object’s remoteness resulting from the joint work of the visual and proprioceptive analysers. In pathology, I. of A. may be disturbed so as to reflect the disintegrated work of the central nervous and sensory systems. Revealed regularities in disturbed I. of A. are used to diagnose diseases. Peculiar forms of I. of A. are used in the arts (see Synaesthesia).

Interactionism

Interactionism, one of the most popular theories in modern Western social psychology reducing socio-psychological processes and phenomena to the impact of one person on another and searching for an explanation in it of the essence, origins and development of interpersonal relationships. I. is based on the works of the American sociopsychologist George Mead. In I., social interaction is understood exclusively as a direct communication (2) (" exchange of symbols") which is distinguished by the ability of man to imagine how he is perceived by a partner in communication (1) (an ability to "take the role of another") or a group (a "generalised other"), and to correspondingly interpret the situation and construct his own -actions. From the viewpoint of I., personality develops in the course of interaction with other people in society which is interpreted as a system of direct communications, the structure of the personality containing the components ensuring his acliveness, as well as control over it according to social norms, the roles and social attitudes of the interacting parties. The basic philosophic and methodological shortcomings of I. stem from the psychologisation of the development of society and social relations, which are reduced to face-to-face communication and interpersonal relations. The latter are examined in isolation from the content of activity and regardless of their socio-historical conditionality. The emotional aspects of human interaction are ignored as well.

Interest

Interest, a form of the manifestation of the cognitive need securing the orientation of a personality towards realising the goals of activity, thus 151 facilitating orientation and familiarisation with new facts, a more comprehensive and profound reflection of the reality. Subjectively, I. manifests itself in the emotional tenor which colours the process of cognition, in attention paid to the object of I. Satisfaction of I. does not extinguish it but leads to the emergence of new I’s corresponding to a higher level of cognitive activity. In the dynamics of its development, I. can turn into a propensity, as a manifestation of the need for carrying out the activity calling forth I. There is a distinction between an unconscious I. provoked by the attractiveness of an object, and a conscious I. in an object regarded as a means of attaining the goal of activity. The steadiness of I. is reflected in its duration and intensity. This steadiness is confirmed by the surmounting of obstacles in the performing of an activity which, in itself, does not excite I., but whose performance is a condition for the attainment of the person’s activity of interest. In the final count, the broadness or narrowness of I. is determined by its content and meaning for the personality.

Interference

Interference, the deterioration of the retention of memorised material as a result of the impact (superimposition) of other material with which the subject operates. I. is studied within the framework of research into memory, the processes of learning (in connection with the question of skill). A distinction is made between retroactive I. and proactive I., depending on the sequence of memorised and interfering material. Depending on the nature of interfering material, researchers identify verbal I., motor-acoustic I., visual I., etc. Experiments dealing with the interfering impact of one material on another reveal a deterioration either in span or quality of the material reproduced, or an increase of the time needed to solve the problem as is the case in selective I. The concept of I. underlies a number of psychological theories on forgetting. The prevalent point of view explains I. as proceeding from the reflex theory of Ivan Pavlov. According to the French psychologist Marcel Foucault (1928), the interfering impact of material on responses is caused by progressive (for proactive I.) or regressive (for retroactive I.) inner inhibition.

Interference, Proactive

Interference, Proactive, a phenomenon of mnemonic activity in which the retention of material being learned is weakened under the impact of previously assimilated (interfering) material (see Interference). I., P. increases with the growing degree of learning of interfering material and the expansion of its volume, as well as with the growing degree of similarity between the material being learned and the interfering material. I.,P. is revealed in experiments by comparing the results of reproduction (or repeated learning) by experimental and control groups.

Interference, Retroactive

Interference, Retroactive, the deterioration of the retention of previously learned material caused by the learning of, or operation with, subsequent ( interfering) material (see Interference). It 152 is established that the relative magnitude of I.,R. decreases with the attainment of a stable criterion of assimilation of the initial material. I.,R. increases with the growing similarity between assimilated and interfering material and reaches its highest level when these materials coincide. With the growth of the volume of memorised material and a constant volume of subsequent material I.,R. gradually decreases, while with a constant volume of memorised material and a growing volume of subsequent material I.,R. increases. I.,R. is determined by use of methods similar to those employed in measuring proactive interference (see Interference, Proactive), that is by comparing the results of reproduction (or repeated learning) in experimental and control groups.

Interference, Selective

Interference, Selective, a phenomenon of mnemonic (see Memory) activity resulting in the retardation of an answer to a question stemming from an involuntary influence on it of the meaning of the word (see Interference). l.,S. vividly displays itself in the solution of the problem of identifying the colour of the letters of a particular word, especially when this word is the name of the colour. Similar effects are observed in many other cases: for instance, when it is necessary to answer whether the words “low” or “high” are pronounced in a high or low voice; when it is necessary to name the picture of an object which bears the inscription of this or another object, etc. The I.,S. phenomenon is used in the study of the processes of comprehension.

Intergroup Discrimination

Intergroup Discrimination, = establishment of differences between one’s own and another group. This process frequently acquires a clearly defined evaluative colouring inherent in intergroup perception (see Perception, Intergroup) as a whole. In certain conditions intergroup differences may be deliberately stressed and exaggerated. The most widespread result of I.D. is the tendency to establish positively valued differences in favour of one’s own group (see Ingroup Favouritism), although examples of a reverse tendency are also quite frequent, i.e. establishment of positively valued differences in favour of some other group. In its extreme expression the former tendency may result in the appearance of tension and hostility in intergroup relations, the latter—in a weakening of intragroup ties, devaluation of intragroup values, destabilisation and disintegration of the group as such. We should distinguish between I.D. as a psychological phenomenon, on which the cognitive mechanisms of identification and differentiation are based, and I.D. as a social phenomenon which, contrary to the assertions of a number of bourgeois authors, is determined not by psychological, but by social, economic, political and other factors.

Interiorisation

Interiorisation, the formation of internal structures of man’s psyche owing to the assimilation of the structures of external social activity. The notion of I. was introduced by French psychologists Pierre Janet and Henri Wallon, the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. 153 I. was similarly interpreted by the representatives of symbolic interactionism. Concepts similar to I. are used in psychoanalysis for explaining how in ontogenesis and phylogenesis, under the impact of inter-individual relations “growing” into the structure of the psyche, the unconscious (individual or collective) is being formed, which, in its turn, determines the structure of consciousness. Soviet psychology interprets I. within the context of the Marxist understanding of psyche, as the transformation of the structure of object-oriented activity into the structure of the internal consciousness. I. should be distinguished from any forms of receiving sign information from the “outside”, processing and storing it “inside” the psyche (perception and memory).

Interpersonal Choices, Motivation of

Interpersonal Choices, Motivation of, a relatively stable structure of motives for choosing a partner for communication (1) and joint activities, which forms the basis of interindividual preferences. When studying I.C.,M. attention is concentrated not on this or that character of sociometric or referentometric choices in a group (see Sociometry; Referentometric Method), but on their inner foundations as a link mediating choices and group differentiation. An analysis of I.C.,M. provides an opportunity to obtain corresponding data (indices) by correlation of a series of rank-ordered interpersonal preferences made by the subject, with his ranging of group members by various bases.

Interpersonal Interaction

Interpersonal Interaction, see Interpersonal Relations.

Interpersonal Relations

Interpersonal Relations, subjectively experienced ties between people, which are objectively manifested in the nature and types of interpersonal interaction, i.e. mutual influences in the process of individuals’ joint activities and communication (1). I.R. are a system of attitudes, orientations and expectations of group members with respect to each other, which is determined by the content and organisation of joint activities and values, on which human communication (1) is based. Moreover, there may be dissonance between the subjectively experienced and objectively existing ties of an individual with other people. In groups with different development levels (see Level of Group Development) I.R. are distinguished not only as to quantity, but also as to quality. Thus in a collective they comprise a complex hierarchical structure, which develops along with its inclusion in socially significant activity. The experimental study of I.R. is implemented by social psychology with the aid of special techniques (see Sociometry; Referentometric Method; Methods of Personality Study).

Intervening Variables

Intervening Variables, a concept introduced by neobehaviourists to overcome the limited interpretation of behaviour as a process reduced to the formula "stimulus—reaction". I.V. were understood to be psychological components (“meaning”, “goal”, “motive”, "cognitive map", etc.) inaccessible to direct observation and playing the role 154 of mediation between the stimulus (as an independent variable) and the reaction (as a dependent) variable). In addition to Edward Tolman’s purely psychological interpretation of I.V., Clark Hull advanced a theory about their presence in the organism in the form of factors accessible to physiological analysis.

Interview (in psychology)

Interview (in psychology), a means of obtaining socio-psychological information with the help of verbal questioning. It is possible to discern three major stages in the history of I.: (1) the application of I. in psychotherapy and psychotechnics which has subsequently led to the establishment of psychological consultation services; (2) the use of I. in specific socio-psychological research when, for the first time, there arose a problem as regards the validity of various methods of conducting I. and the validity of the information received; (3) the present stage is characterised by the coordination of practical, theoretical and methodological problems of I. for applying it as a specific method of obtaining information on the basis of verbal communication (2). There are two kinds of I.: free (not limited by subject and form) and standardised (close in form to a questionnaire with the questions put in private). The boundaries between these two kinds of I. are quite mobile and depend on the complexity of the problem, the aim and the stage of investigation. The degree of freedom of the participants in I. is determined by the availability and the form of questions; the level of the information received—by the content and the complexity of the answers received. The interviewer may find himself in one of the following situations: (a) the respondent knows why he is going to act in a particular way; (b) the respondent is lacking information on the reasons behind his actions; (c) the I. is aimed at obtaining symptomatic information, although it does not seem so to the respondent. One or another of these situations determines the use of various methods of conducting I. In the first case it is sufficient to resort to an orderly, purposeful questionnaire. The other two situations require methods involving the respondent’s cooperation in the search for necessary information. The pertinent examples are clinical (see Interview, Clinical) and diagnostic (see Interview, Diagnostic) interviews.

Interview, Clinical

Interview, Clinical, a method of therapeutic interview while providing psychological assistance. In psychiatry, psychoanalysis and medical psychology I’s.C. are used to assist the patient in realising his inner problems, conflicts and hidden motives of behavior. I.,C. is one of the freest forms of interview since behavioral reactions are practically inexhaustible. In such interviews, the psychologist is interested not only in the obvious content of the patient’s answer (facts, opinions, sentiments, vocabulary, associations, ideas) but also in his behaviour (the tone, stammering, gestures, etc.). A substantial requisite for a successful I.,C. is the establishment of a rapport between the participants, which requires from the psychologist great patience, adaptability 155 to the prevalent interests of the patient, and resourcefulness. In some cases I.,C. can have an immediate psycho-therapeutic effect when the patient not only comprehends the root-causes of his difficulties but also determines ways to overcome them. The general strategy and the course of I.,C. are based on the preliminary data of a diagnosis.

Interview, Diagnostic

Interview, Diagnostic, the process of obtaining information on the characteristics of a personality, a process which is used at the early stages of psychOr therapy. I.,D. serves as a means of establishing close personal contact with the interlocutor. In many situations of clinical work, I.,D. is an important means for penetrating the inner world of the patient and getting to know his problems. Since the interpretation of the interlocutor’s behaviour can lead to inadequate conclusions and distortions, high demands are placed on the interviewer: he has to have an extensive reserve of behavioral reactions to the respondent’s answers, that is, reactions expressing his interest, impassivity, disagreement, understanding, etc. The diagnostician must know the vocabulary of the patient; the choice of expressions and turns of speech should be measured against the age, sex and environmental background of the patient. There are two kinds of I.,D.: (1) controlled, from fully programmed (as a kind of questionnaire with an invariable strategy and invariable tactics) to completely free (a stable strategy with totally free tactics); (2) uncontrolled (“confessional”, with the initialive belonging to the respondent). A standardised I.,D. allows a quantitative expression of results and does not take much time. Among its shortcomings are: the supression of the spontaneity of answers; the loss of emotional contact with the patient; the activation of protection mechanisms. This is why I.,D. is very rarely used in clinical work.

Introspection

Introspection, see Self-Observation.

Introspective Psychology

Introspective Psychology, a number of trends in psychology using as the sole method of studying psyche the observation by the subject of the content and acts of his own consciousness. I.P. originates from the teachings of Rene Descartes and John Locke, according to whom human consciousness is apprehended in a way essentially different from that of cognising the outside world, that is, by introspective contemplation or internal experience whose objects are images, thoughts, emotional experiences. In the period of the formation of psychology as an independent science this method became the guiding principle for the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt and his school combining introspection (see Self-observation), which was understood as an internal perception by the subject of the mental processes realised by him, with the experimental method (see Experiment). It was surmised that the unreliability of usual (non-scientific) self-observation could be overcome by the training of subjects who were developing the skill of self-account of what they directly 156 perceived at the moment an irritant was presented. The data they reported were recognised as scientific facts only in those cases when the constant external stimuli led to the same subjective phenomena. On this basis sensations, their copies—the images of memory and the simplest feelings were accepted as the structural elements of psyche. These “atoms” of the sensory “fabric” of consciousness were studied from the viewpoint of their quality, intensity, etc. The American psychologist Edward Titchener was the most consistent and straight-forward advocate of this approach (see Structural Psychology). Another variant of I.P. was presented by the German psychologist Franz Brentano and his followers (Carl Stumpf, Theodor Lipps, Oswald Kiilpe) who saw the task of psychology in an objective reconstruction of what the individual felt in all its totality and specificity. That postulate influenced the programme of the Wurzburg School which, without reducing introspection to the account of immediate stimuli, combined it with retrospection—the subsequent reproduction of what the subject experienced earlier in solving intellectual tasks. Gestalt psychology also criticised Wundt for the “atomism” of his scheme, and it used the testimonials of consciousness to prove the integrity of the mental image. In advancing the subjective method as the only means of exploring mental, as distinct from physical reality, I.P. identified this reality with self-observation data, which resulted in consciousness being found to be set apart from the rest of the world both in its essence and cognoscibility. The idealism and subjectivism of I.P. have led it to a crisis and deprived it of scientific significance. I.P. has been sharply criticised by the adherents of behaviourism and psychoanalysis, mostly from mechanistic positions. The methodological unfoundedness of I.P. has been exposed in the works of Soviet psychologists.

Intuition

Intuition, the knowledge emerging without the realisation of the ways and conditions of its reception, owing to which the subject has it as a result of "immediate perception". I. is interpreted both as a specific ability (for example, artistic or scientific I.) and as an "integral grasping" of the conditions of a problem situation (sensory I., intellectual I.), as well as a mechanism of creative activity (creative I.) (see Creative work; Imagination). It is typical for intuitivist concepts (Henri Bergson, N.O. Lossky, Sigmund Freud) to interpret I. as the initial cause of the creative act concealed in the depths of the unconscious. Scientific psychology regards I. as a necessary moment of transgressing the limits of stereotyped behaviour and, in particular, the logical programmes for the solution of a problem, the moment being determined by the very nature of creativity. Any “spontaneous” intuitive knowledge is always reflected in the experience of human practical and spiritual activity, which, in fact, makes it possible to speak of professional I. as a necessary component of professional creativity, as the aggregate psychological component of professional activity. 157 Modern data accumulated by the psychology of sensory cognition, research into the genesis of perception, visual thinking, etc. convincingly prove the intermediary nature of the most elementary forms of the sensory reflection of reality, in which their sociohistoric nature finds its expression.

Invested Effort

Invested Effort, a psychological phenomenon in which the subject cherishes more than other factors, say, time, some other aspects of his activity personally important to him and actualising his potentials, especially creative abilities. Due to his social nature, the subject feels the need for other people’s appreciation of what he himself regards as his I.E. When other people ignore it, the subject’s motivation declines; he becomes indifferent and begins to work without interest, without the motivational impulse needed to achieve high results (Anna Lipkina).

Irradiation

Irradiation, the ability of a nervous process to spread from the place of its origin to other nerve elements. According to Ivan Pavlov, the I. of excitation lies at the core of the generalisation of the conditioned reflex and depends on the intensity of the stimulus. It has been established that the effect of generalisation is the result of the operation of activating subcortical structures (see Brain). The so-called I. of inhibition has yet to be studied thoroughly. According to Pyotr Anokhin’s concept (1968), this phenomenon comes down to an outside expression of the degree of dominancy (see Dominant) of the biologically negative reaction and its inhibiting impact on other reactions.

Irritability

Irritability, change in the physiological state, organs, tissue or cells of an integral organism under the influence of external influences—irritants. The minimal magnitude of an irritant sufficient to cause such a change is called threshold. I. relates to the fundamental properties of living systems, and its presence serves as a classic criterion of life in general. The I. of Protozoa (one-celled) organisms is already characterised by a specific direction of their movement, namely towards or from the source of irritation. Along with the ability to form elementary conditioned reactions, the I. of Protozoa protoplasma underlies all their behavioural forms. I., or excitability of the sense organs, is a major requisite for reflection by an organism of the objective properties of the environment, this being the essence of sensitivity processes (see also Sensation).

Irritant

Irritant, any material agent, external or internal, conscious or unconscious, which causes subsequent changes in the state of an organism. The notion "I." is generic in relation to the notions of stimulus and signal. In a fixated cause - and-effect relationship between a given event and subsequent changes in the state of the organism, I. is the stimulus, and the corresponding change the reaction. Psychologists distinguish I’s of 158 biologically direct significance ( biogenic); I’s of biologically indirect significance (abiogenic); and I’s of unclear (ambiguous) biological significance. Abiogenic I’s (when the organism is sensible thereto) take the form of signals, since they orient the organism to biogenic and ambiguous I’s. I’s include material agents of varying nature (physical, chemical, physico-chemical), which are perceived either by specialised end organs of different analysers, or directly by cells of certain organs and tissues. I’s change in intensity from minimal (sufficient to cause a sensation) to maximal (in which a given sensation is still retained), manifesting themselves as threshold sensations involving the lower and upper absolute thresholds (see Sensation Threshold). I’s may also be adequate ( genetically related to corresponding analysers) and inadequate (unrelated, but causing sensations specific for a given analyser). For instance, both light and mechanical and electrical effects on the retina cause visual sensations in the eye.

Id

Id, see Freudianism.