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Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)

Galvanic Skin Response (GSR), an indicator of the skin’s electrical conductivity. It possesses both physical and tonic forms. In the first case GSR is a component of an orientating reflex, arising in response to a new stimulus and extinguishing with its repetition. The tonic form of GSR characterises slow changes in skin conductivity, which develop, for instance, with tiredness.

Game, Business

Game, Business, a form of reconstructing the object and social content of professional activity, the modelling of the systems of relations characteristic of a particular type of practice. G.,B. represents the unfolding of a particular (game) activity by the participants in an imitation model recreating the conditions and dynamics of production. Study, research, managerial and examination G’s.B. can be discerned, depending on the type of human practice reconstructed in the game and the goals pursued by the participants. The origin of G.,B. can be traced to the magic rites of primitive people; its more recent predecessor was a military game conceived in the 17th century. The first managerial game (an " organisationalproductional test") was elaborated and conducted in the USSR in 1932. However, a serious approach to the development of G’s,B. was lacking in that period, and the concept was only revived’in 1957 in the USA, where it was conducted with the use of a computer. At present, G’s,B. are gaining in scope in connection with the problem of improving management, planning and production decision-making, and personnel training. In teaching, educational G.,B. makes it possible to set an object-oriented, social context of professional activity, thereby creating conditions for moulding the personality of a specialist that are more adequate as compared to traditional learning. In these conditions, the assimilation of new knowledge is superimposed on the groundwork of future professional activities; learning acquires a joint, collective character; the development of the specialist’s personality’ occurs as a result of submission to two types of norms—the norms of competent object-oriented actions and the norms of social relations within a collective. In this “contextual” learning, the attainment of didactic and educational aims 108 is fused in. one stream of the students’ essentially social activity, which is realised in the form of play activity. The motivation, interest and emotional status of the participants in G.,B. are determined by broad opportunities for goalsetting and goal-attainment and for dialogic communication arising from the material of the problematically-set content of the G.,B.

Genealogical Method

Genealogical Method, see Methods of Psyhogenetics.

General Psychology

General Psychology, theoretical and experimental studies revealing the more general psychological regularities, theoretical principles and methods of psychology, its basic concepts and categorial system. One can only reveal and describe the general principles, categories, concepts and methods of psychology that constitute the subject-matter of G.P. by abstracting himself from concrete investigations performed in special branches of psychology. At the same time, the results of research into G.P. serve as a foundation for developing all other branches of psychology. The basic notions of G.P. characterise psychic processes, states, and properties. The psychic processes include: (1) cognitive processes, viz. sensations and perceptions, memory, imagination, and thinking; (2) volitional processes, viz. motives, aspirations, desires, and decision-making; and (3) emotional processes, viz. sentiments and emotions. The psychic states include manifestations of psychic processes, viz. cognitive processes (e.g. doubt); volitional processes (e.g. confidence); and emotional processes (e.g. moods and affects). The psychic properties include qualities of the mind (abilities), stable volitional features (character), and fixed emotional qualities (temperament). The classification of the basic concepts of G.P. into these groups is purely conventional. The concept "psychic process" underlines the processual aspect of a psychic phenomenon studied by G.P. The concept "psychic state" characterises the static moment, the relative constancy of a psychic event. The concept "psychic property" reflects the stability of the phenomenon under study and its recurrence and constancy within the structure of the personality. For instance, an affect may simultaneously be regarded as a psychic process (since it displays the dynamics of senses and its stepwise character), as a psychic state (since it characterises person’s mind at a given time period), and as a manifestation of the individual’s psychic properties, viz. quick temper or irefulness. Dialectical materialism constitutes the scientific philosophical basis of G.P. investigations.

Generalisation

Generalisation, a product of thinking, a form of reflection of the general features and properties of phenomena. Forms of G. correspond to forms of thinking. G’s in the form of meanings of words have been studied most exhaustively. G’s are also means of thinking. More simple G’s are made by combining or grouping objects on the basis of some individual, random feature (syncretic combinations). A more complicated G. is a complex G., when 109 a group of objects is combined into a single whole on the basis of different features. A more complicated G. is one in which specific and generic features are differentiated distinctly and a given object is included in some system of concepts. Complex G’s (like syncretic ones) are present at any level of complexity of intellectual activity. In studying the formation of new G’s, psychology uses the method of forming " artificial concepts" by analysing the ways in which a person would ^group objects (the syncretic, the coniplex, or the conceptual). The same G. may result from differently organised research activities (G. based on minimally necessary data, and the same G. based on excess data). Subjectively, a new G. (knowledge) may differ in origin and be either obtained (assimilated) in communication (1) with other people or developed independently. In the latter case, this G. may be a new one in social experience. To study G’s, psychology defines, compares and classifies concepts. The study of purposeful control of the assimilation of G’s is now widely practiced. Normally, several G’s are associated with one word (Vassili Davydov). Actual use of one of those would depend on the context of the situation or utterance and on the motives and goals of the speaker. The forming of G’s that enhance social experience is a contribution to historical development of thinking.

Generalisation of a Conditioned Reflex

Generalisation of a Conditioned Reflex, takes place at the initial stages of the development of a conditioned reflex, when the required reaction is produced not only by a reinforced stimulus but other proximal stimuli as well. The generalisation of the effector part of the response is also possible, e.g. when an animal develops a reflex flexing of an extremity, its other extremities may at first be involved in the response as well. The neurophysiological mechanism of G. of C.R. is the irradiation of excitation. Recent research has shown that G. of C.R. is accompanied by changes in the electric activity of brain structures at different levels. Opposite to G. of C.R. is the specialisation of a conditioned reflex.

Genetic Epistemology

Genetic Epistemology, a trend in the study of thinking developed by Jean Piaget and his school (see Geneva School of Genetic Psychology) with a view to create a general theory of cognition that would synthesize the evidence of ontogenesis (experimental psychological study of child intellect) and phylogenesis (history of science). Parallels between the two were perceived in the changed nature of relationships between the subject and object of intellectual operations, both in the individual and in the course of general evolution of scientific ideas. At both levels, progress is seen in the overcoming of egocentrism and phenomenalism, and in the deepening of reflexion and construction of logico-mathematical structures. G.E. helped study correlations between the logic and psychology of thinking by strongly influencing, among other things, the development of Piaget’s psychological concept. However, the original scheme of G.E. failed to productively develop because 110 G.E. ignored the role of social factors in the development of cognition.

Genetic Method

Genetic Method, see Psychogenetics.

Geneva School of Genetic Psychology

Geneva School of Genetic Psychology, an orientation of psychology studying the child’s mental development, perception and genetic epistemology. Was founded by Jean Piaget and developed by his followers. The main object of study is the origin of a child’s intellect; the main purpose—a study of the mechanisms of a child’s cognitive activity concealed behind the overt behaviour; the main method of research—clinical interview (see Interview, Clinical)— concentrating not on recording the external signs of a phenomenon but on the processes giving rise to them. Research carried out by this school has shown that intellectual development is in fact a transition from egocentrism (centratiori) to an objective position through decentration. The peculiarity of child’s mental development is linked with those cognitive structures which are shaped after birth through actions. The external actions of a child under two years of age (initially performed successively and in detail) become schematised thanks to repetition and, through symbolic means (imitation, play, mental image, drawing, speech) are internalised between the ages of two and seven. Being coordinated with other actions, at the age of 7-11 they become concrete mental operations. Education can speed up the acquisition of notions, but the extent and nature of achievements are always dependent on the initial development level, while the influence of social environment is determined by the schemes and structures which allow the subject to assimilate these influences; the order of the formation of cognitive schemes is constant, but the duration of their attainment varies depending on a number of factors; the laws of cognitive development are universal, operating both throughout the development of a child’s intelligence, atid during scientific cognition (see Genetic Epistemology). The point of departure for the G.S.G.P. is the concept of interaction of a living system with the environment, assimilation and accommodation being two inseparable processes. In the course of assimilation, the individual as it were superimposes his behavioural patterns on the environment, while- accommodation means that he restructures these patterns in accordance with the environment. Piaget proceeded from this general biological stand when interpreting intellectual development believing that striving towards greater equilibrium with the environment (see Homeostasis), the individual builds cognitive schemes. This approach has determined the interpretation of the data gathered by the G.S.G.P. through biological categories, which gave rise to well-justified critique of its theoretical position by Soviet psychologists.

Geniality

Geniality, the highest level of development of man’s abilities, both of general (intellectual) and specific ones (see Abilities, specific). Only when a personality attains such results through his or her creative activities which constitute an epoch in the life of society 111 and in cultural development, would it serve a sign of G.

Genotype

Genotype, the sum total of all the genes localised in the chromosomes of a given organism. In a broader sense, G. is the sum total of the organism’s genes inherited from parents. The term was introduced in 1903 by the Danish biologist Wilhelm Johannsen. Each species of microorganisms, plants and animals has a genotype characteristic of it. At the same time, within each species, the organisms differ as to their G. The only members of the human population possessing identical G’s are monozygotic (one-ovum) twins (see Methods of Psychogenetics).

Gerontological Psychology

Gerontological Psychology, see Developmental Psychology.

Gestalt

Gestalt [Germ.—form, configuration, pattern], a functional structure which, through the operation of laws inherent in it, structures the multitude of separate phenomena. The term was introduced by Gestalt psychology and was originally used in the description of psyche, but was later extended to the study of physical, physiological, social and other phenomena. The notion of G. was evolved during the study of sensory phenomena when the need arose to distinguish the elements (sensations) constituting them from the method of their structurisation (e.g. although when performed in different keys a tune gives rise to different sensations, it is still recognisable as the same tune). This method came to be known as G. having its own laws, whose study became the principal objective of Gestalt psychology. The laws of G. include: the tendency of the elements to form a symmetrical whole, their grouping in the direction of distinctiveness, simplicity, proximity, balance, "pregnance" (the tendency of each psychic phenomenon to assume a more definite, distinct and closed form), etc. These concepts expressed the general methodological trend of G. psychology which unjustifiably granted the status of law to individual facts discovered when studying perception, and interpreted perception itself as a “pure” phenomenon of consciousness and not as a mental image of objective reality built through object activities and dependent of previous experience.

Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt Psychology [Germ. Gestalt— form, configuration, pattern], an orientation in Western psychology evolved in Germany in the first third of the 20th century which studied psychological phenomena from the point of view of whole perceptual structures (Gestalts) considered to be primary with respect to their elements. G.P. was opposed to the principle of structural psychology (Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener, et al.) according to which consciousness is split ’into elements used to construct psychic phenomena according to the laws of association or creative synthesis. The idea that the inner, systematic organisation of the whole determines the properties and functions of the elements constituting it was originally applied to experimental studies of perception (mainly visual perception) , which made it possible to 112 examine a number of its major properties: constancy, organisation, the dependence of an object figure on its background, etc. When analysing intellectual behaviour, the role of the sensory image in organising motor responses was traced. The construction of this image was explained by a special mental act of insight or instantaneous grasping of relationships in the perceptual field (See Insight). G.P. opposed these ideas to behaviourism, which explained behaviour of an organism in a problem situation by “blind” motor trials accidentally stumbling on the solution. When analysing thinking, G.P. laid the stress on transformation ( reorganisation, new centering) of cognitive structures, which allows thinking to assume a productive character distinguishing it from formal logical operations, algorithms, etc. Although the principles of G.P. and the facts it discovered have promoted the advance of knowledge about mental processes (this refers, above all, to the development of the category of mental image and the establishment of the systems approach), its idealistic methodology, which derives from phenomenology, has hampered a scientific, deterministic analysis of these processes. Mental “gestalts” and their transformations were viewed as properties of individual consciousness, whose dependence on the object world and the functioning of the nervous system were represented along the lines of isomorphism (structural similarity), a variant of psychophysical parallelism. The principal figures in G.P. are German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka. Another trend in G.P. is associated with Kurt Lewin and his school, who applied the systems principle and the idea of the priority of the whole in the dynamics of perceptual structures to motivation of human behaviour. Other prominent representatives of G.P. are Kurt Goldstein, the advocate of “holism” in pathopsychology and Fritz Heider, who introduced the idea of Gestalt into social psychology to explain interpersonal perception (see Perception, Interpersonal).

Giftedness

Giftedness, (1) a qualitatively unique combination of abilities that ensures successful activity. Combined operation of abilities representing a definite structure allows to compensate for insufficient individual abilities at the expense of advanced development of others; (2) general abilities, or general elements of abilities determining the range of human possibilities and the level and uniqueness of human activity;
(3) mental potential or intellect; integral individual characteristics of cognitive possibilities and abilities to learn;
(4) a sum of inclinations and native qualities; the degree to which native premises of abilities are expressly pronounced; and (5) talent, i.e. the presence of intrinsic factors for outstanding achievements. The polysemanticnature of the term “G” reflects variety of problems treated within an integral approach to abilities. Being the most general characteristic of the sphere of abilities, G. requires all-round study by the psychophysiology, differential and social psychology.

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Goal

Goal, a realised image of an anticipated result, to whose achievement human action is directed. In psychology, the notion of G. is also used in the following meanings: formal description of terminal situations towards which any self-regulating functional system strives; and anticipated useful result which determines the integrity and trend of an organism’s behaviour. The idea of G. as an anticipated useful result is used in analysing the biological prehistory of the origin of a realised human goal and in studying the psychophysiological mechanisms whereby purposeful behavioural acts are regulated. The notion of G. as a realised image of an anticipated result is used in studying voluntary intentional acts representing some specific feature of human activity/ G.-formation is essentially based on object-related activity aimed at transforming the surrounding world. Two forms of anticipation in animal vital activity are phylogenetic (see Phylogenesis) premises for the origin of realised G’s in humans, namely, (a) anticipation of some useful result ("necessary future") whose accomplishment would produce a direct adaptational effect, and (b) anticipation of means that would lead to a useful result (such anticipation arises at relatively high evolutionary levels). In ontogenesis, G. formation starts with setting a G. and forming intentions in joint activities and ends with the individual setting himself a G. Functionally, an action involves G. forming processes; performance; emotional and cognitive assessment of the course of action; and the final result of that action. The image of the -anticipated result assumes a motivational force, becomes a G., begins to guide the action and determine the choice of possible means for implementing that G. by merely referring to a given motive or system of motives. G.-formation (or emergence of a G.) is the central element of any action, and the principal mechanism whereby the individual devises new actions. The psychophysiological foundation of a G. is the "image of the necessary future" ( Nikolai Bernstein) coded in the brain, the acceptor of action results (Pyotr Anokhin) that regulates the programme of physiological implementation of an action by means of anticipated and sanctioned commands (affording information about correspondence of the accomplished result to what was required) .

Goal Formation

Goal Formation, the process of setting new goals in human activity; a manifestation of thinking. G.F. may be involuntary or voluntary, and is characterised by change in time. G.F. involves a number of mechanisms, viz. transformation of a received requirement into an individual goal, choice of one of the available demands, conversion of motives into motivational goals when the former are realised, transformation of “by-products” into a goal, transformation of unconscious anticipations into a goal, identification of intermediate goals, transition from preliminary to final goals, and formation of a hierarchy and sequence of goals in time. G.F. studies constitute an important trend in psychological 114 analysis of activity (both individual and joint): they examine the dependence of G.F. on motivation of activity, the role of emotions in G.F. acts, the attainability of a result, and the correlation of general and specific goals. G.F. is analysed for function, historical development of human mentality, ontogenetic (see Ontogenesis) development of psyche, and the biological prehistory of goals as aclualised images of future results.

Goal Gradient

Goal Gradient, a change in the strength of activity motivation depending on the "psychological distance" from the goal. G.G. is characterised by the growing intensity of motivation and activity as the desired goal draws nearer. Approach and avoidance gradients are distinguished depending on whether the goal is respectively positive or negative.

Gradient

Gradient, a regular quantitative change in the magnitude of some properly or index (e.g. gradient of stimulus) (see Taxis).

Graphology

Graphology, the doctrine of handwriting as a variety of expressive movements allowing to discern the characteristics and psychic state of the writer reflected in it. The view of handwriting as a distinct expression of man’s nature goes back to antiquity ( Arisiotle, Theophrastus, et al.) The term "G." was introduced by Jean-Hippolyte Michon in the second half of the 19th century. The idea that a study of handwriting can help diagnose personality traits of complex origin and structure has not been scientifically substantiated; neither were the attempts successful to trace direct correlations between the graphic elements of handwriting and a person’s character traits and life story, allegedly expressed in it. There is authentic proof that the writer’s emotional state and certain typological properties of higher neural activity affect handwriting. Elements of graphological analysis in combination with other techniques are sometimes used in research into problems of differential psychology and psychophysiology. There are data showing that the handwriting of persons suffering from certain mental illnesses acquires characteristic features. Thus the handwriting of a schizophrenic is often excessively fanciful, which makes its study helpful from the diagnostic point of view. In criminalistics, graphology is used for the identification of an individual, e.g. of the author of a document by comparative study of the graphological traits found in a document whose author is not known with the graphological traits .contained in samples written by suspects (legal graphology).

Graphomania

Graphomania, obsessive compulsion to write unsupported by the ability this occupation requires.

Group

Group, a social unit differentiated from the social whole on the basis of a certain characteristic (class affiliation, the fact or nature of joint activities, the level of development of interpersonal relationships, features of organisation, etc.). G’s are classified correspondingly: conventional and large 115 and small G’s (see Group, Large; Group, Small), organised and nonorganised G’s; official and unofficial G’s [see Group, Official (formal), and Group, unofficial (informal)]; membership and reference G’s; G’s with high (collectives) and low ( corporalions, G., diffuse) development level. Social psychology views G’s as the subject of activity through which the G. is included into the system of social relations. The basic parameters of G’s traditionally studied by social psychology are composition (membership); structure (the structure of communications, relations of leadership and subordination, the distribution of roles, etc.), G. processes (interpersonal relations); the dynamics of G. norms (see Group Norms) and values, the level of group development (see Collective) .

Group Behaviour of Animals

Group Behaviour of Animals, = coordinated joint actions of animals (many higher invertebrates and vertebrates) performed while living in communities, i.e. permanent or temporary associations (herds, flocks, families). G.B. of A. includes all forms of inter-individual relations between animals (mating partners, parents and the young, etc.) and always takes place under conditions of communication among members of the community (see Communication, Animal). The more developed forms of communities are characterised by a more or less stable membership. An important element of G.B. of A. is the so-called aggressiveness of animals, i.e. actions directed against other representatives of the species (or animals equated with them). The intraspecies struggle for the leading position in the community, a sleeping or resting place, food, nesting sites (see Territorial Behaviour of Animals), mating partner, etc. but it rarely assumes the form of genuine fighting (with a possible death of one of the adversaries). As a rule, it is “ pretended”, “ritualised” contest. Elements of aggressiveness ("commanding respect") form part of animal courting behaviour. As distinct from relationships among people and their joint actions, which are determined by social and historical factors, animal group behaviour remains entirely within the framework of biological laws thus falling within a qualitatively different category of phenomena.

Group Cohesion

Group Cohesion, a quality characterising the strength, unity and stability of personal interactions and relationships in a group. In Western social psychology, the school of group dynamics launched G.C. studies based on the concept that a group is to be understood as a psychological unit based on a system of emotional and interpersonal bonds (Leon Festinger). Accordingly, a cohesive group was considered that which "strongly attracts" all its participants. G.C. was also interpreted as something that makes a given group attractive and useful for the individual member (D. Cartwright and Alvin Zander). This resulted in two approaches to assessing G.C., viz. (a) by estimating the mutual emotional attractiveness of group members (the more persons in a group like each 116 other, the higher the G.C.); and (b) through emotional assessment of the group by its members (the more they are satisfied with the group, the higher Ihe G.C.). Some G.C. assessments took group consensus into account. Sociometry suggested a special G.C. index, the quotient obtained by dividing the number of mutual choices made by the group members during sociometric studies by the maximally possible number of choices. Soviet social psychology understands G.C. as the valueorientalional and object-value unity.

Group Compatibility

Group Compatibility, a socio- psychological group characteristics that manifests itself in the ability of group members to coordinate their actions and optimise their relationships in various types of joint activities. A requisite for creating a favourable psychological climate in a collective is to establish G.C. In a developed collective, G.C. involves a hierarchy of levels (Artur Petrovsky). The lower level implies psychophysiological compatibility of temperaments and coordination of sensorimotor acts. The next level implies coordination of functional-role expecta- " lions, i.e. the group members’ ideas. about what, how, with whom, and in what sequence they must do when solving a common problem. The top G.C. level implies value-orientational unity and adequate responsibility for successes and failures.

Group Consensus

Group Consensus, unity of views characterising people making up a group. The term "G.C.", introduced by Theodore Newcomb, means that members of a given group have identical views of the world, positions and"’attitudes. In line with this concept, which emerged on the basis of interactionism, G.C. is established in the course of direct interactions, through mutual acceptance by the group members of each olher,s stances and roles. The G.C. concept asserts that different individuals combined in groups gradually begin spontaneously to assess given situations, events, phenomena, and social objects in the same way. Within this concept, the significant aspects of joint, socially valuable activities and group cohesion have not been distinguished. Soviet social psychology treats G.C. as value-orientational unity.

Group Decision-Making

Group Decision-Making, the choice of a solution from among a range of alternatives made by a group under the conditions of information exchange when solving a common task. The procedure of G.D.-M. necessarily implies coordination of opinions of group members as distinct from group discussion, which is usually regarded as preceding G.D-M. In some cases, G.D.-M. is used under the conditions of restricted information exchange, when members of the group may only state their original decisions. G.D.-M. should be distinguished from the transition from individual decisions (see Decision-Making) to group ones taking place without the participants’ interaction. Experimental study of the process of G.D.-M. was begun by Kurt Lewin, who examined the influence of group discussion on the decisions 117 reached. His school discovered the risky shift and group polarisation, which show that group decisions cannot be reduced to a sum of individual decisions but are a specific product of group interaction. Some data testify to a higher quality of group decisions as compared to individual ones. At the same time, it has been noted that the discussion may give rise to certain deformations (specifically, a risky shift) which impair the quality of group decisions. Investigating the relative value of group and individual decision-making, Western psychologists ignore the level of group development, which has to be reckoned with when evaluating and analysing the results of research into the questions of G.D.-M.

Group, Diffuse

Group, Diffuse, a social unit marked by the absence of cohesion as a valueorientational unity and of joint activities capable of mediating relations of its members. Irrespective of the theoretical trend, US social psychology ( neobehaviourism, cognitive, psychoanalytical^ the interactionist orientations), concentrate mainly on research into problems of small groups (see Group, Small), specifically, laboratory analogues of G’s, D., i.e. persons accidentally brought together for participation in a psychological experiment. The conclusions drawn as a result of the experiment in a G.,D. are extrapolated without proper justification to all the small groups irrespective of their development level (see Level of Group Development). Soviet psychological research has shown that the sociopsychological laws and regularities discovered as a result of the study of G’s, D. are not valid for groups with a high development level (see Collective) .

Group Discussion, Method of

Group Discussion, Method of, (1) a method of organising joint activities of collectives aiming at speedy and efficient group problem solving; (2) a technique which uses the system of logically substantiated arguments in order to influence the opinions, positions and attitudes of the participants in a discussion in the process of direct communication (1). The use of G.D.,M. allows: to give the participants, by confronting opposite positions, a chance to see the various aspects of the problem to specify and clarify positions, which reduces the resistance to new information; to smooth away hidden conflicts, since open statements provide an opportunity to remove emotional bias when assessing the partners’ stand; to reach a group decision granting it the status of group norm (if the decision is approved by all participants, group normalisation occurs, if not, group polarisation results); to use the mechanism of placing and accepting responsibility thus enhancing the participants’ involvement in the subsequent implementation of group decisions; to raise the efficiency of the contribution and the interest of the participants in the discussion in fulfilling the group task by giving them a chance to display their competence thus gratifying their need for recognition and respect. Different forms of organising group discussion exist, from ordinary production conferences to 118 specially prepared forms, such as the "brain storming". G.D.,M. may be used in the course of any joint activities requiring coordinated group action: industry, science, group psychotherapy (see Psychotherapy, Group).

Group Dynamics

Group Dynamics, a trend in sociopsychological research founded by the US psychologist Kurt Lewin. The chief object of research is the small group (see Group, Small). The term "G.D." is used to convey different meanings: (1) to denote a trend investigating small groups along the principles of Gestalt Psychology; (2) to describe the processes occurring in the group as it grows and changes; (3) to describe the cause-and-effect relationships explaining these processes; (4) to point out the set of methods used to study social attitudes and interpersonal relations in a group. Besides the problems listed above, G.D. investigates the correlation between individual and group motivation, inter- and intra- . group conflicts, leadership, etc. The primary object of research in G.D. was the diffuse group (see Group, Diffuse). The principal method was staging laboratory situations with preset parameters. Soviet psychology is investigating the problems falling within the G.D. range from the position of the theory of the collective.

Group Formation

Group Formation, a process in the course of which a previously accidental aggregation of individuals turns into a separate isolated small group (see Group, Small) with a certain structure and typological characteristics ( collective, corporation, etc.). A specific type of G.F. is collective formation. Western psychologists, who do not consider the collective an object of research in its own right and take no account of the principle of workmediated interpersonal relations, regards G.F. as a socio-psychological phenomenon governed by the general rules and laws of group dynamics. It is maintained that G.F. starts when a certain number of people motivated by individual needs display a striving for a common goal. The process is completed when such interpersonal relations are formed (see Interpersonal Relations) which are necessary for attaining this goal. Three main groupforming factors are distinguished: coincidence of individual interests; people’s spatial and temporal proximity; and the presence of a stressful situation (see Stress) threatening their personal well-being and prompting them to unite. This interpretation, which proceeds from recognition of strictly individualistic interests of group members, applies to communities with a low level of group development and is therefore invalid for the processes of collective formation.

Group Integration

Group Integration, the coordination, order and stability of a system of intergroup processes. G.I. is revealed in a relatively continuous life of the group, which implies a rather stable reproduction of the psychological components of intergroup activities, a certain degree of autonomy. G.f. is a necessary requisite for the stable functioning and the very existence of the group; the 119 lack of integrative properties inevitably leads to the disintegration of any social unit. Being the result and distinct reflection of the stable reproduction of a system of intergroup activities, G.I. is reflected in certain states of its structures. Integration processes are distinguished by the fact that in usual conditions they are “hidden” in the everyday functioning of the group and show signs of their existence only when overcoming sudden impedements and neutralising erupting discord. Integration processes are intended to counteract internal and external perturbations threatening the integrity of the group and to secure its preservation by transforming its initial components. The genetic sources of G.I. lie in socially conditioned joint activities.

Group, Large

Group, Large —(1) a social unit embracing a considerable number of people acting together in socially meaningful situations; (2) a conventional community of individuals differentiated as a whole on the basis of certain characteristics (class, nationality, sex, age, etc.). G’s, L. embrace people living in the same state, nations, ethnic groups, classes, parties, professional/trade and other organisations, social movements, age cohorts, mass media audiences, bodies of employees at enterprises and organisations numbering hundreds and thousands of people, etc. The specific regulator of the behaviour of the members of a G.L. are social relations determining the group’s way of life, including goals, interests, values, needs, culture, traditions, morals, customs, and typical forms of the indivilual’s response to social situations and events. Major G’s, L. include classes, whose profound scientific analysis is contained in the works of Marx, Engels and Lenin.

Group Normalisation

Group Normalisation, see Group Polarisation.

Group Norms

Group Norms, standards of behaviour accepted in a given community and governing human relationship. Observance of G.N. is a requisite for effective interaction of individuals in the course of joint activity and communication (1). When a subject complies with social norms reflected in G.N., this makes him socially responsible for his behaviour. G.N. fulfil regulative, evaluative, stabilising, and other functions associated with human relationships in social groups. G.N. allow a person to assess his own and other people’s actions, compare them with models, choose the necessary forms of behaviour and drop out those unacceptable to a given community, and guide and control his relations with other people. The functioning of G.N. is directly connected with social control (see Control Social) of group and individual activity. Any organised community of people existing for a fairly long time would develop for themselves and be guided by a definite system of specific group norms. A uniform and unambiguous response by the group members to individual actions differing from the behaviour of most of the other members would signify the presence of G.N. G.N. establish the basic elements that govern socio- psychological processes in a given group, viz. 120 human relations, rights and duties, possible versions of intragroup behaviour, and the content and admissible bounds of sanctions against persons whose behaviour is noticeably deviant from established norms. One can only understand relations between individuals in a group when he knows what G.N. they accept and reject, and why.

Group, Official (Formal)

Group, Official (Formal), a social unit having a legal status, whose members are united under conditions of the social division of labour by socially determined activities which organise their work. A G.O. (F.) always has a normative, hierarchical structure or status system. The relative structural rigidity is a necessary condition of successfully dealing with problems set before it. Under certain conditions, this may hamper their solution (for instance, when the goals of group activity are undergoing a substantial change) and frequently leads to the emergence of temporary informal groups (see Group, Unofficial), which make up for the insufficient flexibility of the G.O.(P.). In certain cases, this may result in the restructuring of the G.O.(F.).

Group Orderliness

Group Orderliness, the capability of a group as a collective subject of joint activities for active reorganisation of unorganised group states into organised, structured ones. G.O. is manifested in its ability to independently create an organisation in an uncertain situation and to combine the initiative and variety of forms of individual behaviour with stable unity of action in achieving the group goal. The nature of G.O. under exceptional, stress conditions may serve as a criterion for assessing that organisation, viz (1) the ability of a group to independently plan the steps of reaching its goals and to distribute the forthcoming work among its members; (2) the high discipline of group members in fulfilling the tasks entrusted to them; (3) the ability of a group to effectively control and correct individual actions, and to suppress manifestations of disorganisation, and (4) the ability of a group in a relatively short time to summate the work performed by its members, to ensure the general purposefulness of interaction, etc. (See Group Integration; Harmony in Work).

Group Polarisation

Group Polarisation, a socio- psychological phenomenon appearing when previous differences of opinion between group members are not only evened out in the group discussion but on the contrary exacerbate to split the group into two groupings holding diametrically opposite views. In such cases, compromise opinions as it were disappear giving way to extreme ones. G.P. also implies an extremisation of group decisions (see Group Decision-Making) or opinions as compared to averaged decisions or opinions. The extent of G.P. is the greater the farther the initial preferences of group members are removed from average values. A particular case of G.P. is the risky shift. G.P. may arise outside open discussion as a result of regular exchange of opinions among participants in joint 121 activities and lead to the formation of groupings holding diametrically opposed positions. In its extreme form, G.P. is expressive of the state of intragroup conflict. The phenomenon opposite to group polarisation is group normalisation. It occurs in the course of a discussion or outside it when initially diverging opinions converge and the number of extreme opinions decreases while the number of averaged ones increases.

Group, Reference

Group, Reference, a real or imaginary social unit whose norms, values and opinions provide a frame of reference for the individual’s behaviour. By and large, G’s, R. perform two main functions: normative and comparative. The normative function finds expression in motivational processes (see Motivation) : G’s, R. act as a source of norms of behaviour and value orientations for the individual. The comparative function is reflected in perceptual processes (see Social Perception): G’s, R. act as the standard which allows the individual to evaluate himself and others. Correspondingly, G’s,R. are subdivided into normative and comparative, but both functions may be fulfilled by the same group. Also distinguished are positive and negative G’s,R (see Object of Reference Relations). In developed socialist society the most important positive G.,R. is, as a rule, the work collective which provides the personality with frame of reference.

Group, Small

Group, Small, a relatively restricted social unit comprising individuals personally communicating and interacting. A particularly intensive investigation of G’s, S. is conducted within the group dynamics school, one of the trends in Western social psychology. It regards the structure of a G.,S. as one of its basic characteristics, i.e. differentiated system of mutually regulated elements and relations, which include: the system of interpersonal interactions, the distribution among participants of the information of roles, positions, views, opinions, evaluations and influence (see Leadership). A feature of a G.,S. is involvement of all its members into interpersonal relations, which allows each of them to feel part of the grpup (experience the “us” feeling). Soviet psychology studies the structure and phenomena occurring in a G.,S. as dependent on the system of social relations into which it is included, and on the content of the activity which mediates group processes (see Collective).

Group, Unofficial (Informal)

Group, Unofficial (Informal), a social unit which has all group characteristics (an established system of interpersonal relations, joint activities, the feeling of belonging to a group, etc.) but no legal status. Depending on the type of activity uniting members of the G.,U. (I.) they are subdivided into professionally and non-professionally oriented groups. With reference to the form of their existence, they can act as isolated units or emerge within official groups [see Group, Official (Formal) ]. Brought together by common interests lying outside the professional field, G’s,U.(I.) exist in the form 122 of clubs, sports sections, societies, etc. G’s,U.(I.) united by professional interests often function as collectives of creative workers (e.g. the so-called invisible colleges—informal associations of scientists employed by different organisations but maintaining contacts with colleagues researching into the same set of problems). Members of all G’s,U.(I.) are united by friendly feelings, mutual liking, emotional attraction, understanding and respect, which frequently exerts a beneficial influence on relationships within the official groups of which such an informal group makes a part.