4

Abilities

Abilities, individual psychological features of the personality, a premise for successful accomplishment of specific productive activity. A. became the subject of specialised psychological studies in the 19th century, when the works of Francis Gallon initiated experimental and statistical studies of personal distinctions. Other conditions being equal, A. manifest themselves in how quickly, easily and efficiently the individual masters methods needed to organise and perform some kind of activity. A. are closely associated with the general orientation of the personality, with stability of human propensities for a given form of activity. Different A. may underlie identical accomplishments in some activity; at the same time, the same A. may underlie success in different types of activity. An important factor in the course of training and education is that of sensitive periods which help develop certain A. (see Developmental Sensitiveness). A. presumably form on the basis of inclinations. A qualitative analysis of A. is designed to reveal individual human characteristics needed to accomplish specific type of activity. Quantitative changes in A. characterise their development level, which is generally estimated by tests (see Achievement Tests; Intelligence Tests; and Creativity Tests). A study of specific psychological characteristics of various A. makes it possible to distinguish the individual’s general qualities that meet the requirements of not one, but several forms of activity (see Intellect), and the special qualities that meet a restricted range of requirements in that particular form of activity (see Abilities, Specific). The degree of develop^J/Ment of A. is expressed in talent and geniality. In Soviet psychology, the problem of A. is treated in the works of Boris Teplov, Natan Leites, Vadim Krutetsky, and others. All-round development of man’s A. is in line with the principle of socialist society: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his work.”

Abilities, Specific

Abilities, Specific, individual psychological features allowing to successfully perform some specific activity (musical, scenic, literary, etc.). A.,S. develop on the basis of suitable inclinations, such as good musical ear and memory. Today, we know of specific sensitive periods (see Developmental Sensitiveness), during which A.,S. develop particularly well. For instance, A.,S. for music involve children under five, who actively develop good musical ear and memory.. Given that inclinations are many-sided, A.,S. can form on various physiological bases. Thus, a certain level of A.,S. (mathematical, artistic, etc.) could be developed in virtually all healthy children. Thus, there is every reason to believe that all-round development of talents in children can be achieved through specially organised training.

Abstraction

Abstraction, a basic type of thinking whereby the subject mentally differentiates some qualities or aspects of an object and isolates them from other 5 qualities or aspects. The result is an intellectual construct (concept, model, theory, classification, etc.) also denoted by the term “A”. Originally, A. is seen in a direct sensory reflection of the environment, when some properties of the latter provide orientation for perception and action while others are ignored. A. is a requisite condition for categorisation. By A. generalised images of reality are formed, allowing to select relations and connections essential to activity by isolating them from other relajjons and connections. When essential properties of reality are ignored, A. assumes a superficial and shallow character. In this case, the term is used to refer to conceptualisation and reasoning which have no basis in reality. A. true to reality is that simplification of the multitude of phenomena which increases the capacity of thought by virtue of its concentration on that which is essential for a given cognitive situation. Practice is the criterion for determining to what extent A. is genuine and productive.

Abulia

Abulia, a pathological disturbance of the mental regulation of actions. It is seen in the absence of an impulse to act, inability to make or act on decisions, although the person is aware of this necessity. A. should be distinguished from lack of willpower as a character trait resulting from improper upbringing and corrigible by adequate training (see Will).

Acalculia

Acalculia, inability to calculate and perform arithmetical operations as a result of cortical lesions. Various groups of A. are recognised: primary A., associated with disturbance of spatial organisation of numbers and impaired ability to calculate; and secondary A., seen in other disorders of mental functions (aphasia, agnosia, amnesia) or in general impairment of purposeful intellectual activity.

Acceleration

Acceleration, an increase in the rate of the somatic and physiological maturation of children and teenagers, observed over the past 100-150 years. A. shows itself primarily in an increase in the bodily size and weight and in earlier onset of puberty. Data show that during this century the average size of infants has increased by 0.5-1.0 cm and the weight, by 100-300 g; the body size and weight of 5-7- yearolds has been increasing by an average of 1.5 cm and 0.5 kg every ten years; and the body size of schoolchildren has increased by 10-15 cm over the period. Puberty sets in one to two years earlier. This condition, given traditional modes of pre-adolescent upbringing and standards of behaviour, can sometimes give rise to mental collisions, such as semantic barriers, conflicts, and affective behaviour. There are data related to the accelerated mental development of children (psychological acceleration); however, there is not enough statistical data to draw a reliable conclusion.

Accentuation of Character

Accentuation of Character, exaggeration of certain personality traits manifesting itself in selective vulnerability of personality in relation to certain types of psychogenic stress (profound 6 distress, excessive mental pressure, etc.) while the person can maintain emotional equilibrium under other types of mental stress. Although pure types are scarse, and mixed types predominate, the following types of A. of C. are distinguished: (1) cycloid—variations of mood resulting from an external situation; (2) asthenic—worry, indecisiveness, fatigue, irritability, inclination towards depressions; (3) sensitive— shyness, sensitivity, tendency to feel inferior; (4) schizoid—aloofness, reticence, loss of ability to maintain personal contacts (see Extroversion— Introversion), inability to sympathise (see Emphathy); (5) paranoiac— excessive irritability, persistence of negative affects, hypersensitivity, suspiciousness, exaggerated sense of selfimportance; (6) epileptic—- uncontrolled and impulsive behaviour, intolerance, mental rigidity, fighting and quarreling, inordinately detailed speech, adherence to standards; (7) histrionic (hysterical)—pronounced tendency towards repression of unpleasant facts or events, lying, fantasy and affected behaviour aimed at drawing attention, disregard for the feeling of other persons, tendency towards recklessness, vanity, "escape into disease" when the need for recognition is not satisfied;
(8) hyperthymic—constantly high spirits, craving for action combined with mood shifts and a tendency to abandon pursuits in mid-course, excessive loquacity (galloping thought);
(9) dysthymic—excessive gravity, high sense of responsibility, concentration on gloomy and sad aspects of life, susceptibility to depressions, inadequate activeness; (10) unstable ( extravert)—tendency to be influenced by external things, a continuous search for fresh impressions or new company, ability to establish quick contact ( although of a superficial character); (11) conforming—exaggerated submissiveness and dependability. Depending on the degree of manifestation, overt and covert types of A. of C. are recognised. Becoming more pronounced towards teenage, A. of C. abates towards adulthood, manifesting itself not in any situation (as in psychopathy) but only in a complex psychogenic situations, those bringing pressure to bear on the "weak link". A. of C. promotes the development of acute affective reactions (see Psychogenic Disorders), neuroses, pathological behaviour disorders. A. of C. must be taken into account in effectuating an individual approach to raising children and teenagers, as well as in choosing adequate forms of individual and family psychotherapies. The above classification was suggested by Karl Leonghard and Andrei l.ichko.

Acceptor of Action Result

Acceptor of Action Result, a mental mechanism of anticipation and evaluation of the result of action in functional systems. The term was introduced by Pyotr Anokhin in 1955. In the information aspect, A. of A.R. is "the informational equivalent of the result" retrieved from memory in the process of decision-making which determines the organisation of the organism’s motor activity during the behavioural act and carries out the comparison of the result with its "anticipated reflection". If they coincide, the completed 7 functional scheme falls apart, and the organism can proceed to another purposeful behaviour; if they overlap, improvements are introduced in the programme of action; if they are totally different, exploratory-orienting behaviour is developed.

Achievement Motivation

Achievement Motivation, the subject’s need to reach success in various types of activity, especially in competition with other people. Studies of A.M. were begun by a group of American researchers headed by David McClelland. They proposed the theory and methodology of measuring A.M. which were further elaborated in the works of John Atkinson and Heinz Heckhausen. A special projective method was worked out for the qualitative estimation and study of A.M. (see Projective Tests). According to McClelland and others, A.M. is formed during the child’s upbringing in the family, under the influence of his parents, firstly of his mother. The basis of A.M. is made up of the affectively coloured associations which link the child’s emotional experience with the forms of his behaviour. If in early childhood the child is praised by the parents for his successes and punished for failures, by the age of 5 to 6 he forms A.M. which later becomes a steady need - and is manifested in various types of activity. McClelland attempted to explain, proceeding from A.M., the specific traits in the socioeconomic development of various nations, which is counter to the historical approach. Soviet psychology rejects the idea of A.M. being formed exclusively during early childhood.

Achievement Tests

Achievement Tests, a technique of psychodiagnosis revealing the extent to which subjects have mastered specific knowledge, abilities, and skills. A.T. resemble special abilities tests (see Creativity Tests). Unlike the latter, however, they reveal what the subject has already mastered, rather than generalised skills devoid of concrete content and resulting from variegated life experience. There are three types of A.T., namely, action tests, written tests, and oral tests. Action tests are designed to reveal an ability to perform actions with mechanisms, materials, and implements. Written A.T. are performed on special questionnaires. The subjects are told to either select the correct oral answer among several options, or to mark in a diagram the reflection of the situation described in a given question, or to find in a drawing the situation or detail providing a cue to the correct solution. Oral A.T. are a system of prepared questions which the subjects must answer; in this case, the experimenter must foresee the difficulties that may arise because of inexperience in articulating replies. A.T. are used in general and vocational training.

Action

Action, a unit of activity; a voluntary intentional mediated activity directed towards reaching a realised goal. A. as a specific unit of human activity was introduced in Soviet psychology by Sergei Rubinstein and Alexei N. Leontyev. The notion of A. as unit of analysis and object of study is used in the study of perceptual, motor, mnemonic, mental, creative, and other A’s. As regards its structure, A., unlike the 8 habitual or impulsive behavioural acts (which are directly determined by the objective situation) is always mediated. By using various means, such as signs, roles, values, norms, etc. the subject masters an A., acquiring it as his own “personal” A. Every A. consists of orienting, effector and control parts. As regards their functioning, A’s can be grouped as voluntary and intentional. In ontogenesis the function of voluntary control and regulation of A. is effected at first in the process of the joint activities of the adult and the child, and, later, as a result of the interiorisation of social norms ( patterns) and schemes of A., the child begins to control his A. in accordance with these patterns and schemes. The intentionality of A. is explained by the fact that the subject decides that the Image of the future result of his A. corresponds to the motive of his activity; in this case this image of action acquires a personalised meaning and becomes the subject’s goal. The subject’s intention gives rise to a goal-related attitude, a readiness to attain the anticipated result of A. The goal-related attitude is connected with the image of the anticipated result, which does not imply concrete ways and means by which the goal could be reached most likely and effectively. This image only charts the general direction for forming A., while the executive part of A. is determined by the concrete conditions of the given situation. In the process of carrying out an A., the subject comes into contact with the objective world and transforms ( outwardly or mentally) the objective situation and attains a result. The subject evaluates its personalised meaning via his emotions. In the process of A. new goals may appear (see Goal Formation) and the place of A. in the activity may change. According to Leontyev, an A. can become an operation, if a repeatedly attained goal, which is firmly connected with the means of reaching it, is no longer realised as a result of it becoming automatic and becomes, within the structure of activity, a condition for performing another A. (shift of the goal towards the condition). Beginning to perform an A. as a result of a certain motive, the subject can later perform an A. for the purpose of the A. itself (shift of the motive towards the goal), in which case the A. becomes an independent activity. The mechanism of the formation of realised “ motivegoals” is one of the mechanisms of the formation of new types of human activity in ontogenesis. On the dynamic plane the stability of an A. is determined by its goal orientation. The psychophysiological organisation of an A. is provided by such a functional block of the brain as the block of programming, regulation and control, of which the frontal lobes are the most important part (Alexander Luria).

Activation

Activation, a state of the nervous system characterising the level of its excitation and reactivity. A. of the nervous system as a whole, as its general characteristic, should be distinguished from A. of any one brain structure. The optimal level of A. would be the utmost degree of 9 correspondence between the state of the nervous system and a behavioural act; the individual level of A. is the stage of A., peculiar to each individual, at which he tends to effectuate his activity.

Activeness

Activeness, the universal characteristic of living beings, their intrinsic dynamics as a source of transforming or maintaining vital relationships with the surrounding world; ability for autonomous action. In psychology, A. is correlated with activity, manifesting itself as a dynamic condition for the latter’s origination, effectuation, and transformation, and as a property of its movement. A. is characterised by a high degree of mediation of any action by the specific inner state of the subject at the very moment of the action, as distinct from reactivity (when actions are mediated by the antecedent situation); by autonomy, i.e. mediation by the subject’s goal, as distinct from field-dependent behaviour (see Field Independence); by cross-situational features, i.e. the surpassing of the initial goals as distinct from adaptability as limitation of the subject’s actions by the narrow framework of the present goals (see Activeness, Situationally Independent); by a considerable degree of stability vis-a-vis the adopted goal, as distinct from passive adaptability to the objects to be encountered by the subject in the course of activity.

Activeness, Orienting

Activeness, Orienting, behaviour aimed at changing a situation (or one’s attitude towards it) with an absence of a definite prognosis of the results but with a continuous account taken of the degree of the behaviour’s effectiveness. A.,O. is an essential component of many types of behaviour. In animals, it embraces all types of active-defensive behaviour (aggression, complex forms of danger avoidance), self-stimulation, orientating behaviour (see Group Behaviour of Animals). In men, A.,O. is a major component in the processes of planning, fantasy, etc.

Activeness of Personality

Activeness of Personality, man’s capacity for producing socially relevant transformations in the world relying on the appropriation of the wealth of material and spiritual culture; manifests itself in creative activity, acts of volition, communication (1). The integral characteristic of A. of P. is adoption of an active stance displayed in the person’s principled ideological position, consistent stand in defending personal viewpoints, maintenance of a unity of word and deed (see Activeness; Activeness, Situationally Independent; Deed; Activity; Personality).

Activeness, Situationally Independent

Activeness, Situationally Independent, a subject’s capacity to remain independent of a given situation, set goals excessive from the point of view of the initial task (Vadim Petrovsky). By way of A.,S.D. the subject overcomes external and internal limitations (“barriers”) to activity (see Attitude). A.,S.D. is manifested in creative activity, cognitive (intellectual) activeness, “unselfish” risk, supernormative activeness (see Efficiency of a Group).

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Activity

Activity, a dynamic system of the subject’s interaction with the surrounding world in the process of which the psychological image emerges and is effectuated in the object, and the subject’s relationships in objective reality mediated by it are realised. The category of A. is a distinctive feature of Soviet psychology based on the Marxist-Leninist methodology. There are two characteristic points in Soviet psychology: (a) the proposition of the unity of psyche and A. which counterposes Soviet psychology to various types of the psychology of consciousness which analysed psyche apart from behaviour (see Introspective Psychology; Gestalt Psychology), and also to various naturalistic trends in behavioural psychology, analysing behaviour apart from psyche (see Behaviourism; Neobehaviourism); (b) the introduction of the principles of development and historicism whose realisation in research necessarily calls for an approach to A. as to the driving force of the development of psychological reflection. The category of A. is used to explain the mind’s functioning in the study of various fields of psychic reality (psychology of cognitive processes, motivation, will, emotions, personality, intragroup processes) and in establishing various psychological fields (general, social, developmental, pedagogical, medical, engineering, work, and animal psychology). The usage of the A. category as an explanatory principle led to a change in the principles of analysing psyche in general psychology (the principle of unity of consciousness and A., the principle of unity of the external and internal structures of A,, the interiorisationexteriorisation principle as a mechanism of acquiring socio-historical experience; the principle of the dependence of psychological reflection on the position of the reflected object in the structure of A., etc.), and to the elaboration of the provisions on the systematic formation of mental actions, on the leading activity as the basis for structuring the development of psyche into stages, on the microstructural analysis of cognitive and executive A., on the mediation of interpersonal relationships, etc. Object relation and subjectivity are the basic characteristics of A. The specific nature of A.’s object-related determination lies in the fact that the objects of the surrounding world influence the subject indirectly, being transformed in the process of A., owing to which they are reflected in consciousness with a greater , adequacy. The phylogenic preconditions of A.’s object relation are revealed in the animal activity being conditioned by the nature of objects and the cues which emerged during the species’ evolution and served to satisfy the given biological needs, and not by any influence of the surrounding world. Only man’s A. is explicitly objectrelated. This is manifested in man’s A. being socially conditioned, in its link with meanings fixated in tools and schemes of action, in the concepts of language, social roles, values, and social norms. The subjectivity of A. is expressed in the following aspects of the subject’s activeness: in the 11 dependence of the psychological image on past experience, needs, attitudes, emotions, goals and motives determining the orientation and the selective nature of A.; in the personalised meaning, the motive ("meaningful for me") to various events, actions and deeds. The analysis of A. may be divided into three planes: genetic, structurally functional and dynamic. On the genetic plane, social joint activities are the initial form of all human A., while interiorisation, which provides for the acquisition of sociohistorical experience through the transformation of joint social activities into individual A., serves as a pattern of the human psychic development. In the process of interiorisation the transition of external A. into internal A. also takes place. The structurally functional approach to the structure of A. is based on the “unit” analysis (Lev Vygotsky), when the given reality is decomposed into “units” containing the basic characteristics inherent in this reality as a whole. The hierarchical ties between A. units are mobile. Depending on the position of the reflected object in the structure of A., the content of the psychological reflection, the level of reflection (conscious or unconscious) and the type of A. regulation (voluntary or involuntary) change. Analysis of A. in the dynamic plane is devoted to the study of mechanisms providing for the progression of A. per se: situationally independent activeness (see Activeness, Situationally Independent) which determines the self-development of activity and the appearance of new forms; and to the orientation which conditions the stability of purposeful A. in the constantly changing reality. A. is realised on the basis of psychological mechanisms studied in Nikolai Bernstein’s "physiology of activeness" (see Level of Movement Construction, Concept of), Pyotr Anokhin’s theory of "functional systems", (see Acceptor of Action Result), and Alexander Luria’s ideas of systems organisation of higher cortical functions (see Higher Mental Functions).

Actualisation

Actualisation, retrieval of stored material from short-term or long-term memory for successive use in the course of recognition; recall, recollection, or direct reproduction. The extent to which A. is easy or difficult depends on the degree of memorising or forgetting of the stored material (see Forgetting, Memorising).

Adaptation, Sensory

Adaptation, Sensory, adaptive modification of sensitivity to suit the change in the degree of intensity of the stimulus acting upon the sense organ. It may manifest itself in various subjective effects (see After-image). A.,S. may be achieved through increases and decreases in absolute sensitivity (such as adaptation to darkness or light). A.,S. is characterised by the scale and speed of sensitivity modification and the selectivity of changes in relation to the adaptive influence. Thus, the processes of visual adaptation are partially selective towards spatial frequency and direction of the stimulus’ movement in the field of vision; the processes of taste adaptation are 12 selective towards all salts but not towards various acids, etc. Physiological changes which lie at the basis of A.,S. occur both in the central and peripheral units of the analyser. The combination of neurophysiological and psychophysical methods (see Psychophysics) is of major importance for research into perception processes and the mechanisms of A.,S. in particular.

Adaptation Syndrome

Adaptation Syndrome, a totality of adaptation reactions of a human or animal organism of a generally defensive character, which develops in response to strong and prolonged pressures (stress factors). A functional state brought about by a stress factor is called stress. The concept of A.S. was introduced in 1936 by the Canadian physiologist Hans Selye. Three stages are distinguished in the development of A.S.: (1) the alarm stage, ranging from several hours to two days; it incorporates the phase of shock and the phase of counter-shock, the latter being the process of mobilisation of the organism’s defensive reactions; (2) the stage of resistance, in which the organism achieves higher resistance to various disturbances; (3) either the stage of stabilisation and recovery or the stage of exhaustion which may result in death (see Adjustment).

Additiveriess

Additiveriess, a property of magnitudes consisting in that their sum corresponding to an object’s parts equals the magnitude corresponding to the whole object. The size of a group, for instance, possesses the A. property, whereas interpersonal relations within it or joint activities do not.

Adjustment

Adjustment, conformation to the environment achieved by an organism’s structure, functions, organs, and cells. The aim of A. processes is to maintain homeostasis. A. is one of the central concepts in biology, widely applied as a theoretical concept in those types of psychology which, like Gestalt psychology or the psychology of intelligence developed by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, see an individual’s relationships with the environment as the process whereby homeostasis is sustained. The study of physiological regulatory mechanisms of A., increasing the organism’s resistance to changes in temperature or barometric pressure, shortage of oxigen, or any other disturbing factors, is highly relevant to finding solutions to applied problems of psychophysiology, medical psychology, ergonomics, and other branches of psychology. Adaptive reactions to unfavourable pressures of high intensity have a number of common features and are collectively called adaptation syndrome. The processes of A. to extraordinary conditions are sometimes broken down into various phases (such as the phase of initial decompensation and the subsequent phases of partial and total compensation). A. changes occur at all levels— from the molecular structure of the organism to the psychological regulation of activity. Of key importance for successful A. to extraordinary conditions are training as well as the individual’s functional, mental, and moral states.

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Adjustment, Social

Adjustment, Social, (1) the process whereby an individual adapts to a new environment; (2) the result of such a process. The socio-psychological content of A.,S. is convergence of goals and value orientations of a group and an individual in this group, adoption by the individual of the group’s norms and customs, the group culture; the individual’s incorporation in the group’s role structure. In Western psychology, the problem of A.,S. is developed within the framework of a trend which originated in the 1930 s1940s on the basis of neobehaviourism (Neal Miller, John Dollard, Robert Sears, and others) and branches of psychoanalytic psychology (see Psychoanalysis), connected with cultural anthropology (Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead) and psychosomatic medicine (Franz Alexander, Thomas French). The social environment’s and the individual’s interests are seen as originally counterposed, and major significance is attributed to pathological phenomena (neurotic and psychosomatic disorders, drug-addiction, etc.). In Soviet psychology, the mechanisms of A.,S. are studied in the context of joint activities shaped by community of goals and value orientations of a collective; the degree of this community provides the basis for distinguishing the levels or phases of adjustment. The basic types of adjustment processes are determined by the structure of needs and motives of the individual. Two types are distinguished: (1) the type characterised by predominance of an active impact upon the social environment, (2) the type characterised by passive, conformist assimilation of the goals and value orientations of the group. A relevant aspect of A.,S. is acceptance of a role. A.,S. is one of the basic socio-psychological mechanisms of the socialisation of a personality.

Affect

Affect, an intensive and relatively short emotional state brought about by a sudden change in any circumstances vital for the subject and accompanied by vividly expressed motor changes and changes in the functions of visceral organs. A. is a response to the event which has already occurred, and is somewhat shifted to the event’s conclusion. A. represents an inner conflict experienced by the person, caused either by the conflict of drives, aspirations, or desires,. or the discrepancy between the demands placed upon the person (by others or himself) and his or her capacity for meeting these demands. A. develops in critical situations when the subject is unable to find an adequate way out of the dangerous and, more often than not, sudden situation. Possessing the traits of a dominant, A. delays mental processes irrelevant to it and imposes some stereotyped emergency way out of the situation (freezing, escape, aggression) shaped in the process of biological evolution and therefore justified only in typical biological conditions. Another important regulatory function of A. is the amassing of specific experience—affective traces (affective complexes)—which make themselves felt in confrontation with individual components of the situation 14 which has given rise to A. and which signal the situation’s possible recurrence. The state of A. is characterised by narrowing of consciousness in which the attention of the subject is wholly concentrated upon the circumstances that have produced this state and the actions which it dictates. Impaired consciousness may result in the inability to recall individual components of the event which has given rise to A.; an extremely strong A. can result in loss of consciousness and complete amnesia. A. limits in the extreme the possibilities of spontaneous regulation of behaviour; hence the purpose of A.-preventing measures employed in pedagogic and psychotherapeutical practices is to prevent A. by avoiding A.-producing situations through performance of distracting acts, explanation of its undesirable consequences, etc. The degree of resistance to development of A. depends on the level of the personality’s moral motivation.

Afferent Synthesis

Afferent Synthesis, in the theory of functional system (Pyotr Anokhin)— the synthesis of the material imprinted in memory, motivation, and information on the environment and the stimulus that sets the mind in action, achieved for the purpose of decisionmaking. Memory is seen as an aggregate of interrelated functional systems at various levels, formed in the course of evolution and in individual lifeexperience; motivation is seen as concretisation of one of the needs of the organism. In A.S., due to motivation, all systems whose operation has at one time or another resulted in satisfaction of this want are actualised. Information on the environment helps attain the’required results. The final decision is made when some event—the impulse—adds pressure to one of the systems chosen under the influence of the given motivation and situation. Inasmuch as the hierarchy of the systems in memory reflects the evolution and individual history of the organism’s adaptive correlations with the environment, there exists a certain hierarchy of A.S. As a systems process, A.S. does not occur in some discreet brain structure but is a process of interaction of neural impulses of various morphological origins (central or peripheral, afferent or efferent) embracing the entire brain and organism.

Affiliation

Affiliation, a person’s desire to be in other person’s company. A tendency towards A. increases with the subject’s involvement in the potentially dangerous, stressful (see Stress) situation. The company of other people allows the person to test the chosen mode of behaviour and the nature of responses in a complex and dangerous situation. To a certain extent, the proximity to others directly decreases worry, mitigating the effect of both mental and physiological stresses. The blocking of A. causes a sense of loneliness and alienation and gives rise to frustration.

After-image

After-image, a_ visual sensation continuing for some (normally short) period of time after a visual stimulation. There are positive and negative 15 A’s. A positive A. is hued like the irritant, and remains for very short time. A negative A. persists for a longer time and is tinted with an additional colour as compared to that of the irritant. For instance, in response to red colour, a green negative A. would arise. At prolonged or intensive stimulation, one may observe several changeovers of positive and negative A’s, which last dozens of seconds or even minutes (see Representations; Eidetism).

Age (in psychology)

Age (in psychology), a specific relatively time-limited stage of the individual’s mental development and the moulding of his personality, characterised by a totality of objective physiological and psychological changes unrelated to idiosyncrasy. Transition from one A. stage to another is marked by restructuring and change of psychic development (see Mental Development; Personality). The psychological characteristics of A. are determined by concrete historical conditions in which the individual develops, by the nature of his upbringing, and by his specific activities and communication (1). Each A. is characterised by its specific "social situation of development" (Lev Vygotsky), and by specific correlation between the social environment and the intrinsic conditions that determine the individual’s development as a personality. Objectively, the same elements of social environment influence people of different A. in different ways, depending on what previously developed psychological properties they are mediated with. The interaction of external and internal factors engenders typical psychological features common to people of the same A. to determine its specific; changes in correlations between these factors condition in their turn the transition to the next A. stage (David Feldstein). A. stages are distinguished by relativity and conventionally averaged characteristics; however, this does not exclude psychological variety of individuals. The A. characteristic of the personality development reflects a certain system of demands made by society on the individual at certain stages of life, and also the nature of his relations with other people, i.e. his social status. Specific A. characteristics are determined by how a child joins groups with different levels of development (see Level of Group Development) and educational institutions; by changes in the nature of family upbringing; by forming of new types of activity that help the child internalise social experience, a system of existing knowledge, norms and rules of human activity; and by the specifics of his physiological development. The notion of A. peculiarities and age boundaries is not an absolute criterion, since age boundaries are variable and depend on the historical period in question, and are different in different socio-economic conditions. The following A. classification is accepted in the USSR: infancy (from birth to age 1); pre-preschool childhood (age 1 to 3); preschool childhood (age 3 to 6); junior school age (age 6 to 10); teenage period (age 10 to 15); youth: first period (senior school age, 16 age 15 to 17) and second period (age 17 to 21); mature age: first period (age 21 to 35) and second period (age 35 to 60); elderly age (age 60 to 75); old age (age 75 to 90); and longevity (age 90 and more).

Agnosia

Agnosia, impairment of perception associated with certain brain lesions. Several forms of A. are distinguished: (1) optical or visual A.—failure to recognise the shape and nature of objects despite the retention of visual powers; (2) tactile A.—inability to recognise an object by touch ( astereognosis) or impairment of the ability to identify parts of one’s own body or the relation of its individual parts, i.e. a defect in appreciation of the body scheme (somatoagnosia); (3) acoustic or auditory A.—- impairment of phonemic hearing, i.e. the ability to distinguish sounds, resulting in a speech disorder (see Aphasia) or impairment of the ability to recognise voices, melodies, etc. (despite the retention of elementary forms of hearing).

Agraphia

Agraphia, inability to communicate in writing accompanying various speech disturbances. It manifests itself either in a total loss of the ability to write or in misreading or transposition of words, omission of letters and syllables, inability to integrate written symbols, etc. In children, A. is a form of speech retardation due to innate brain disfunctions; it is also seen in speech disorders manifest in the impaired ability to distinguish sounds as a result of poor hearing or deafness. In adults, A. is a form of aphasia.

Alexia

Alexia, loss of the ability to read resulting from damage to a specific area of the left cerebral cortex (in right-handers), or failure to acquire any reading ability. Various forms of A. are recognised as associated with the localisation of the lesion.

Algorithm

Algorithm, a procedure based on a system of rules prescribing that a group of operations are executed in a certain sequence; a strict adherence to the procedure allows all tasks of a certain class to be solved. A key to mathematics and mathematical logic, the concept is also applied in psychology, (engineering psychology, pedagogic psychology, psychology of management, etc.), though not in a strictly mathematical sense, in the study of managerial processes and of procedures for executing prescriptions in certain types of activity. A. includes indication of certain initial data essential for the solution of a task, the criterion (or rule) whereby the process is recognised as completed up on the achievement of a certain result. The ability to solve a problem "in general", i.e. mastery of certain methods of solving a specific class of problems, signifies mastery of a certain A.

Alienation (in psychology)

Alienation (in psychology), the display of such life relationships of a subject with the surrounding world in which the products of the subject’s activity, the subject himself, as well as other individuals and social groups, are 17 conceived as opposite to the subject, this opposition ranging from difference to rejection and hostility. This is expressed in corresponding emotional experiences, viz. feelings of isolation, solitude, rejection, loss of one’s ego, etc. The notion of A. should not be confused with the alienation of the personality in an antagonistic class society. As a social process, A. is characterised by the transformation of man’s activity and also of man’s properties and capabilities into something independent of and dominant over the person in question. In social psychology, A. is used to characterise interpersonal relations in which the individual is set off againsl other individuals, groups, and the whole of society to come to experience a certain degree of isolation. Such conflict relations within a group are caused by the fact that the values conditioning joint activities are violated, and also by loss of the feeling of solidarity, when an individual in the given group perceives the other group members as alien and hostile to himself, rejecting their common norms, laws and prescriptions. Social psychologists in the West explain such A. primarily by individually typical traits of personality. Sigmund Freud used the concept to explain the pathological development of a personality in culture alien and hostile to man’s natural character, this showing in the neurotic loss of the feeling of reality, or in the loss of one’s individuality ( depersonalisation). In this case, Freud thought the unconscious is the decisive factor in individual behaviour, which, in his view, leads to antagonism between that individual and the social environment (see Freudianism). In child psychology, the notion of A. is applied to express the essential factor in the establishment of the child’s self- consciousness, in the development of his reflexive ability. In early age, the child feels merged with the surrounding world, unable to distinguish himself from his vital activity. In the later stages of ontogenesis, the notion of A. is associated with the child’s attitudes towards himself, adults, equals, norms of behaviour and social demands that are expressed in rejection, disagreement, negativism. Basing on joint activity and communication, the individual develops an ability to look upon himself through the eyes of other people and to accept their attitudes.

Altruism

Altruism, the system of a person’s value orientations whereby interests of other persons or a social community are the central motive and criterion for moral evaluation. The term was coined by the French philosopher Auguste Comte as the opposite notion of egoism. Freud saw A. as the subject’s neurotic need to alleviate a sense of guilt or as compensation for the repressed primeval egoism. The mechanism whereby A. is displayed can be of different nature: A. may be expressed in the subject’s actions taken in some concrete dangerous situation (e.g. saving a child at the cost of one’s own life) or be a conscious value orientation determining the subject’s general behaviour, in which case it expresses the subject’s purpose of living. 18 Idealisation of A. is as erroneous as its underestimation. The real significance of altruistic behaviour is determined by the nature of values underlying the person’s relationships with others. A. expressed in forgiveness, tolerance of shortcomings, blind sacrifice for the sake of other persons, including those who violate the norms of communist morality, is a negative personality trait. A. may be exhibited as a socio-psychological expression of humaneness (see Identification, Collectivist) in communication (1) and activity.

Ambition

Ambition, the prominence of achievement motivation, the aspiration for glory, awards, and respect in some social sphere. Exaggerated A. is intensified by vainglory, i.e. by arrogant attitudes towards others. As a desire for social recognition, A. may objectively play a relatively positive role by stimulating social activities. However, being individualistic in nature, A. acts as a hindrance to fostering collectivism, to combining public and personal interests.

Ambivalence of Sentiments

Ambivalence of Sentiments, coexistence of several contradicting emotions towards a given object. A typical case of A. of S. is when individual traits of a complex object impress a person’s needs and values differently (thus, it is possible to respect the person’s industry and disapprove of his/her hot temper). A specific case of A. of S. is the antithesis of stable sentiments towards a certain object and situational emotions deriving from it (thus, a person is hurt if some person or persons to whom he/she attaches positive value are inattentive to him/her).

Amnesia

Amnesia, loss of memory due to specific local lesions of the brain. Its two most common forms are retrograde A. and anterograde A. Retrograde A. refers to inability to recall events antedating the onset of the disorder (trauma, etc.): it extends backwards to include events that occurred several hours, days, or, sometimes, years prior to the cause of memory disturbance. Anterograde A. refers to inability to form memories of events subsequent to the onset of the disorder. It may encompass periods of various length. The most severe forms of A. were described by the Russian neurologist Sergei Korsakov, and are known as Korsakov’s syndrome. There are forms of A. related to functional memory disturbances: posthypnotic A.—loss of memory for events that occurred during a hypnotic stage; defensive A.—loss of memory ( repression) for unpleasant (traumatic) experience.

Analgesia

Analgesia, loss or total absence of the pain sensation. A. may be achieved by taking an analgesic or by fixing attention on objects unrelated to the cause of pain (music, etc.), as well as by suggestion, self-suggestion, hypnosis. A. may also be achieved by massage (general or punctural) and by application of heat or cold to specific points on the body.

Analogy

Analogy, similarity of certain aspects of dissimilar objects. Use of A., in 19 cognition provides a basis for insights and hypotheses. Deductions by A. have frequently led to scientific discoveries. Deductions by A. are based on the formation and actualisation of associations. It is possible to make a purposeful search for A. The task of making an A. is a component of psychodiagnostic examination. Difficulties in establishing similar aspects of objects by some abstract property indicate inadequate development or impairment of thinking.

Analyser

Analyser, a neural apparatus that performs the function of analysis and synthesis of the irritants affecting the organism’s internal and external environment. The term was introduced by the Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov. A. consists of: (1) receptors transforming a certain type of energy into a neural process (the peripheral unit); (2) afferent paths transmitting impulses from the receptor into the central nervous system and efferent paths transmitting nerve impulses away from the central nervous system (especially from the cerebral cortex) to the lower levels of A., including receptors, and regulating their operation; (3) projection fibers of the cortex. Each A. distinguishes an irritant of a certain type, providing for its subsequent separation into individual elements. Thus, the visual A. distinguishes a certain unit of electromagnetic oscillations, making it possible to differentiate the intensity, colour, shape, and other properties of objects. At the same time A. reflects spatial and temporal relationships of these elementary stimuli. Types of A. are distinguished according to the types of sensitivity, visual, auditory, olfactory, taste, tactile, motor, etc. Influenced by the environment in the process of phylogenesis, analysers developed and differentiated through constant sophistication of the central and receptor systems. Development and differentiation of the cerebral cortex provided for the development of higher analysis and synthesis. Due to receptor differentiation, the first phase of the analysis of sensory experience is achieved, when a given A. distinguishes stimuli of a definite type from the mass of sensory stimuli. In the light of current data on neural mechanisms, A. may be defined as a totality of receptors and the detectors connected with them which are hierarchically ordered: detectors of more complex properties are constituted by detectors of a more elementary order. A number of parallel detector systems is built up from a certain limited amount of receptors. A. is a component of reflex mechanism incorporating also the efferent mechanism (an aggregate of command neurons, motorneurons, and motor units) and special neurons—modulators—- changing the degree of excitation of other neurons.

Analysis

Analysis, the separation of the whole into its constituent elements. A. is present in all acts of the organism’s practical and cognitive interaction with the environment. On the basis of practical activity, man has developed the ability to perform A. at the level of concepts. As an essential phase of 20 cognition, A. is inextricably linked to synthesis, and constitutes one of the basic operations in the process of thinking.

Analytical Psychology

Analytical Psychology, the system of psychology developed by the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung, who gave it this name to differentiate < it from Freudian psychoanalysis. Like Freud, Jung believed that the unconscious has a decisive role in the regulation of behaviour. In addition to the individual division of the unconscious, Jung distinguished the collective unconscious, the contents of which cannot be made conscious. The collective unconscious forms an autonomous mental fund which imprints the experience inherited from preceding generations through the brain structure. The basic mental elements—- archetypes—(representations of what is fundamental and typical to all humanity) constituting this area of the mind are portrayed in the symbols of creative activity, rituals, dreams, and complexes. As a means of revealing hidden motives, Jung suggested inducing associations by stimulus-words (see Association Experiment): inadequate or delayed reply to the stimulus-word indicates the existence of a complex. A.P. sees the goal of mental development in individuation—the development of individual personality from the collective unconscious. Although A.P. rejects some principles of Freudian psychology (libido, for example, is understood not as sexual but as any unconscious psychic energy), in the light of materialist methodology this approach to personality and its development is as groundless as those in other branches of psychoanalysis, inasmuch as it denies the socio-historical substance of the motive forces of man’s behaviour and the decisive role of consciousness in behaviour regulation. A.P. presents history, mythology, the arts, and religion in a false light, treating them as products of some eternal collective human psyche. The classification of personality types suggested by Jung (he recognised two general types: extrovert—oriented towards the external world, and introvert—one whose mental energy is turned inward) was developed independently of A.P. in concrete psychological studies of personality (see Extroversion—Introversion)

Anancasms

Anancasms, see Obsessions.

Animal Psychology

Animal Psychology, the science of the animal psyche, of the manifestations and regularities of psychic reflection at this level. A.P. studies the formation of psychic processes in animals in ontogenesis, the origins of the psyche and its development in the process of evolution, the biological requisites for and the origin of human consciousness. The thinkers of long ago paid attention to the abilities of animals. The birth of scientific A.P. at the turn of the 19th century is connected with the names of George Buffon and Jean Lamarck and, later on, Charles Darwin. In Russia, the founders of the scientific study of animal behaviour were Karl Rulier and V.A. Wagner, who laid the foundation for a materialist evolutionary trend in A.P. in the 19th and 21 20th centuries. This trend was further developed by Soviet psychologists, _who refute antropomorphic, idealistic and vulgar-materialist views of the psychic activity of animals, basing themselves on the Leninist theory of reflection. They study the animal psyche in dialectical unity with their external, primarily motor, activity (see Instinctive Behaviour of Animals; Territorial Behaviour of Animals), through which they establish all necessary ties with the environment. Ontogenesis and phylogenesis regard the complication of activity as the primary factor leading to the intensification, enrichment and perfection of the motor activity (Kurdt Fabri). Empiric study of the psychic activity of animals, their perceptual processes, orientating exploratory reactions, memory, emotions, skills and other types of learning (see Learning by Animals), intellect, etc., is carried out on the basis of an objective analysis of the structure of animal behaviour and requires an all-round account of the ecological particularities of the specimen, since, as distinct from man, the psychic activity of animals is totally determined by biological factors. That is the reason for the close link of A.P. with ethology and other biological sciences. The achievements of Soviet A.P. are particularly significant in studies dealing with the psychic regulation of the behaviour of supreme mammals (works by Nikolai Voitonis, Natalia Ladygina-Kots, et. al.).

Anthropogenesis

Anthropogenesis, the evolution of man (Homo sapiens). Man emerged in the early Quaternary, several million years ago. The principal requisites for anthropogenesis were distinctions peculiar to anthropoid apes, such as a high level of development of both principal types of motor activity (locomotion and manipulation); maximum flexibility (among animals) of the forelimbs, particularly fingers of the forearm, and adaptation of limbs for performing fairly complex grasping operations; binocular vision, predominating over sense of smell and functioning in conjunction with the movements of forearms and their tactile and muscular sensitivity, thus ensuring a better knowledge of the physical properties of the objects of manipulation; highly developed forms of group behaviour (see Group Behaviour of Animals) and communication (see Communication (2), Animal). The primates (man’s ancestors) assumed the fully erect attitude in walking. As a result, the forearm was relieved from the walking function to adapt to its principal function of manipulation. That ensured intensive development of instrumental actions (see Instrumental Actions of Animals) and a further rise in the level of mental activity. The latter was the foundation for the first specifically human, albeit primitive, labour operations, characterised by the use of specially prepared implements of labour. Joint labour gave rise to social relationships, followed by articulate speech and consciousness, which, in turn, had a substantial reciprocal effect upon the descent of modern man. As a whole, A. is characterised not so much 22 by morphological transformations (changes in the structure of man’s direct ancestors) as by profound qualitative changes in behaviour and psyche and the establishment of fundamentally new attitudes to the surrounding world. In natural history, A. is an unprecedented leap forward from a biological to a social form of development (see Animal Psychology).

Anthropomorphism

Anthropomorphism, attributing specific human characteristics and abilities to animals. The anthropomorphic interpretation of animal behaviour in terms of human motives and acts essentially rejects differences between man and animal, and consequently, disregards the qualities peculiar to human psyche (resulting from labour activity, social life, and articulate speech) and the decisive role of the social factor in man’s life and activities and in mankind’s development in general. The idea is based on the sociologisation of animal behaviour, and, as a rule, on the biologisation of man’s behaviour, and the substitutions of biological factors for social factors and socio-historical regularities.

Anticipating Reflection

Anticipating Reflection, see Acceptor of Action Result.

Anticipation

Anticipation, the ability of higher living creatures (men and animals) to foresee the results of actions, the appearance of objects or of phenomena ("anticipatory reflection"). The A. ability derives from the central nervous system’s capacity for " modelling" the course and outcome of future events on the basis of past experience.

Anxiety

Anxiety, an emotional state arising in situations of impending danger and manifested in expectation of unfavourable events. Unlike fear as a response to a specific threat, A. represents generalised, diffuse or pointless fright. In man, A. is usually associated with expectation of failures in social interaction, and is often caused by the fact that the source of danger is unknown. Functionally, A. not only forewarns the individual of a possible danger, but also compels him to seek and specify that danger, and to actively examine the environment so as to single out the threatening object. A. may manifest itself as a feeling of helplessness, uncertainty of oneself, lack of sufficient strength in the face of external factors, and exaggeration of their potency and threat. Behaviourally, A. manifests itself in generally disorganised activity. As a mechanism of neuroses (neurotic anxiety) forming on the basis of internal contradictions in the development and structure of individual psyche (for example, because of exaggerated level of aspirations, insufficiently-grounded moral motives, etc.), A. may lead to inadequate conviction that one is threatened by other people, his own body, the results of his own actions, etc. Empirical studies distinguish situational A., characterising the individual’s state at a given moment, from A. as a personality trait (worry), which shows in a strong tendency to feel 23 A. about real and imaginary dangers. A. may be attenuated by defence mechanisms, e.g. repression, substitution, rationalisation, projection, etc.

Aphasia

Aphasia, systems disturbance of speech due to damage of a specific area of the left hemisphere of the brain (in right-handers). A. shows itself in violation of phonematic, morphological, and syntactical speech structures and inability to comprehend speech in the absence of faulty innervation of speech muscles (ensuring articulate speech) and while retaining elementary forms of hearing. The following seven types of A. are recognised, each resulting from impairment of one of the factors of speech and attributable to a specific area of the pathological process: (1) sensory A.—- disturbance of phonematic hearing, i.e. inability to distinguish sounds in words, difficulties in understanding spoken speech (see Speech, Oral) or writing to dictation; (2) auditory-amnesic A.—- disturbing of aural-verbal memory, showing itself in difficulties in comprehending speech in complicated conditions (fast speech, two simultaneous oral communications, etc.) and also in difficulties in spoken speech ( difficulties in evoking words, verbal paraphasias) and in writing to dictation; (3) visual-amnesic A., which is essentially disturbance of visual memory (see Memory, Sensory), manifests itself in difficulties in naming objects and their representations—regardless of the retention of the power to name actions; (4) semantic A.—defective comprehension of certain logical and grammatical constructions, such as " father’s brother", "brother’s father", "spring before summer", combined with impaired ability to calculate and defective spatial thinking; (5) afferent motory A.—impaired ability to utter words, substitution of phonemes due to disturbed differentiation of similar articulatory movements essential to produce the word, accompanied with disturbed spontaneous writing and writing to dictation; (6) efferent motor A.—disturbed kinetic organisation of speech, difficulties in passing from one word (or syllable) to another due to inertness of speech stereotypes; (7) dynamic A.—failure to arrange words in a proper sequence, manifesting itself in defective speech planning and characterised by disturbed uttered speech and spontaneous writing and difficulties in actualisation of words denoting actions.

Apperception

Apperception, the dependence of perception on the antecedent experience, on the general content of human mental activity and on man’s personal traits. The term was coined by the German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz to denote clear (conscious) apprehension of a certain content by the soul. According to Wilhelm Wundt, A. is a universal principle of explanation, an "inner spiritual force" determining the course of mental processes. In contrast to these approaches to A. as an inner spontaneous activity of consciousness, contemporary scientific psychology treats A. as a result of an individual’s life experience that allows him or her to form hypotheses on the 24 properties of what is perceived, providing for its conscious apprehension. Two types of A. are recognised: longterm A., which is a dependence of perception on the stable qualities of the personality (world outlook, convictions, education, etc.) and temporary A. influenced by situational psychic states (emotions, expectations, attitudes, etc.).

Apraxia

Apraxia, impairment of voluntary purposeful movement and actions, in spite of the absence of paralysis, paresis, or any other elementary motor disorder. A. is attributable to motor impairment of a higher order. The form of A. depends on the localisation of the brain lesion. The following basic types of A. are recognised: (1) kinesthetic A.—inability to carry out a set of necessary movements ( particularly in the absence of a visual aid) due to impairment of kinesthetic ( related to perception of one’s own movement and location) analysis and synthesis; (2) constructional A.—- impairment of the visual-constructional organisation of the motor act ( maximal impairment of ability to carry out movements at different physical levels and in reproducing geometrical patterns); (3). kinetic (dynamic) A.—- impaired ability to carry out a series of purposeful motor acts lying at the basis of motor powers, motor perse-, verations; (4) “frontal” regulation A.—impaired ability to move according to a preset programme, disturbance of speech regulation of spontaneous movements and actions, the appearance of complex perseverations, echolalias, echopraxias; (5) apractoagnosia—a combination of visual spatial disturbance (see Agnosia) and motor impairment in the form of a spatial (constructional) A.; (6) oral A.—impairment of the kinesthetic basis of the speech apparatus, often combined with afferent motor aphasia.

Artificial Intellect

Artificial Intellect, (1) a conventional designation of the cybernetic systems and their logic-mathematic supply designed to solve some tasks usually requiring the application of man’s intellectual abilities; (2) the totality of the functional abilities of the computer to solve problems which previously required man’s obligatory participation. The term "A.I." should be regarded as a metaphor. The theories of programming, which sometimes include the theory of computers themselves, are forming the actual content of the theory of A.I. At present, of major importance is organisation of knowledge within A.I. systems, organisation of a dialogue between man and machine, and creation of hybrid intellect systems combining the mental abilities of human beings separated in time and space, providing for the use of information and computer technology adopted to each active participant in such systems. Psychology is a field where the ideas of A.I. are applied. In its turn, the knowledge of psychology is used in the theory of A.I. Psychology deals with the problem of the existing or lacking analogy between man’s psyche and A.I. Although A.I. rests on modelling individual aspects and properties of human thinking, the confluence of 25 data obtained reflecting the functioning of the computer and the computer way of thinking does not make it possible to conclude that there exists a similarity between the compared structures. The emergence and application of A.I. systems proves the historical evolution of human cognitive activity, the appearance of new methods reflecting reality which are incorporated in A.I. systems and of new forms of correlation between individual and social consciousness and socio-historical determination of human activities. Applied research in psychology in the field of A.I. involves elaboration of psychological principles used in computer programme supply and the application of A.I. systems. The psychological research into man’s intellectual activity and diological communication serves as a basis for the search for new ways of further improving computer systems and pooling the creative abilities of man and the formalised procedures carried out by the computer.

Aspiration

Aspiration, an initially motivated, sensually experienced need for or attraction towards an object. Depending on the degree of the subject’s awareness, A. as a dynamic tendency takes the form of a drive or desire (see Will).

Assimilation

Assimilation, a basic way of acquiring socio-historical experience. In the course of A., an individual learns the social significance of objects and their utilisation techniques, and also the moral foundations of behaviour and forms of communication (1) with other people. All substantial elements of human behaviour, both motivational (see Motivation) and operational (see Operation), are subject to A. The basic intrinsic substance of the process of learning is in A. of the meanings of objects of material and intellectual culture and their utilisation techniques. The pivot of education is A. of the moral norms of behaviour. The effectiveness of A. (its quality, durability and speed) depends on the completeness of the orientating basis of action to be performed; on the objective, logical and psychological variety of the subject-matter involving the content to be mastered; and on measures to control the action-forming process. Along with A. of a new meaning (the formation of a concept), actualisation of the above-mentioned elements would lead to the forming of a full-value action for applying that meaning. The future results of A., i.e. of new actions, concepts, and forms of behaviour, would largely depend on their place within the structure of the types of activity meaningful for the subject of A.

Association

Association, a relationship between psychic phenomena whereby the actualisation (perception, representation) of one phenomenon causes the recurrence of another. The concept was developed in the philosophical doctrines of the ancient world. From the simple statement of the fact of A. (the perception of some object brings to mind the image of its owner), psychology went over to explaining A. through organic processes occurring within the human organism. That 26 lended the concept of A. a deterministic character (see Determinism)’, the recurrence of an object in the absence of any usual external irritant was attributed to the relations between organic processes fixed in the antecedent experience, the processes which, according to Aristotle, connect and form stable combinations by virtue of their similarity, contrast, or contiguity. When one member of the combination recurs in the soul, it “automatically” revives others, inherent in the organism. The term "association of ideas" was introduced by John Locke, who contrasts A’s with relations formed on the basis of reasoning. The concept of A. became fundamental to many psychological systems of the 18th-19th centuries (see Associationism). A conditioned reflex is the psychophysiological basis of A.

Association (in social psychology)

Association (in social psychology), a group characterised by the absence of joint activities, organisation, and leadership, while value orientations mediating interpersonal relations manifest themselves in the conditions of group communication (1). Depending on the social character of the mediate factors, the following types of A. are recognised: (1) the pro-social A., to which positive moral values have been imparted by a broad social environment, and not shaped and fixed in the process of labour; when included in joint activities conditioned by objectives of a socially significant character and appropriate organisation and leadership, this type of A. develops by way of collective formation; (2) the asocial A., in which value orientations are of a negative or even anti-social character; in the setting of anti-social organisation and leadership, it easily grows into a corporation.

Association Experiment

Association Experiment, a projective test (see Tests, Projective) introduced by Carl Jung as a means of revealing hidden affective complexes. A.E. was first applied to the problems of psychiatry. Later it came to be used for research and psychodiagnostic purposes (see Psychodiagnostics). The test involves supplying stimulus-words to which the subject must react in the quickest possible way with the next association that comes into his mind. A delayed reactions, inadequate understanding of the stimulus-word, its automatic repetition, the general behaviour of the subject (unmotivated laughter, complaints, blushing, etc.) are seen as indicating the presence of emotionally coloured notions which the subject is reluctant to repeat. The specific character of the complex may be revealed through interpreting the answers’ content; this purpose may be served,- among other things, by preliminary grouping of the more symptomatic reactions and expansion of their content by the use of the "free association" method. A.E. is often employed as a group test. Any type of A.E. requires that the nature of the more general and recurrent responses to every word on the list is revealed, that is to say, that the test be conducted on an adequately representative group of subjects speaking the given language. Apart from word stimuli, 27 other stimuli are employed: nonsense syllables, unknown words, drawings and pictures, colour spots, sounds, etc.

Associationism

Associationism, one of the basic trends in psychological thought, explaining the dynamics of mental processes through the principle of association. The postulates of A. were first formulated by Aristotle, who put forth the idea that images recurring in the absence of any external stimulus are produced by association. In the 17th century, the idea was elaborated by the mechanical-determinist teaching of psyche. The organism was seen as a machine imprinting the traces of external stimuli, therefore the recurrence of one trace automatically causes the recurrence of another. In the 18th century, the principle of association of ideas extended to the entire area of the psychic, but was treated differently in various doctrines. On the one hand, there were George Berkeley and David Hume who interpreted association as the relation of phenomena in the subject’s consciousness; on the other, there was David Hartley’s system of materialist association. In the early 19th century, there appeared theories detaching association from its organic substratum and interpreting it in terms of the immanent principle of consciousness (Thomas Brown, James Mill, John Stuart Mill). A view took hold that: (1) psyche (identified with introspectively understood consciousness) consists of mental elements— sensations, elementary feelings; (2) elements are primary while mental combinations (representations, thoughts, sentiments) are secondary, produced by association; (3) the condition for association formation is contiguity of two mental processes; (4) the fixation of association is conditioned by the mobility of the assembled elements and by the frequency of association recurrence in the course of experience. A. has undergone a fundamental transformation thanks to the attainments of biology and neurophysiology. Hermann Helmholtz applied the new interpretation of association to his research into the sense organs. Charles Darwin used it to explain emotions; the Russian physiologist Ivan Sechenov, in his teaching of reflexes of the brain. Herbert Spencer’s evolutionary approach added to A. the problem of the mental development in phylogenesis. Spencer arrived at an important conclusion of the adaptive function of psyche in behaviour. Numerous attempts at research into the field of association formation and actualisation were made in the 1880 s1890s (Hermann Ebbinghaus, Georg Miiller, and others). At the same time, the narrow character of the mechanistic approach to association was demonstrated. The determinist elements of A. were, in a new interpretation, absorbed and transformed by Ivan Pavlov’s theory of conditioned reflexes, and, albeit on a different methodological footing, by American behaviourism. Modern psychology also studies associations in order to clarify various mental processes, in particular, the problem of semantic associations and their role in education (see also Association Experiment).

28

Association Psychology

Association Psychology, see Associationism.

Asthenia

Asthenia, nervous or mental weakness manifesting itself in tiredness (see Tiredness) and quick loss of strength, low sensation threshold, extremely unstable moods, and sleep disturbance. A. may be caused by disease as well as by excessive mental or physical strain, prolonged negative emotional experience or conflict.

Atrophy

Atrophy, degeneration of organic structures. In psychology, the term is used in the sense of degeneration of some mental function due to lack of exercise or to unfavourable or traumatic pressures (prolonged emotional stress, conflict, frustration, drugs, intoxication, etc.).

Attention

Attention, activity of a subject concentrated at a given moment on some real or ideal object (thing, event, image, discourse, etc.). A. also characterises coordination of various links in the functional structure of an action which determines the success of its execution, e.g. the speed and accuracy of a task solution. The range of problems involved in the study of A. has been outlined through differentiation of the broader philosophical concept of apperception (Gottfried Leibniz, Immanuel Kant, Johann Herbart). In Wilhelm Wundt’s works, this term was related to processes through which one becomes distinctly aware of the content of the perceived object and it becomes integrated in the structure of past experience ("creative synthesis"). Nikolai Lange, a Russian psychologist who developed the theory of volitional A., has significantly contributed to the further development of ideas about A. Like the French psychologist Theodule Ribot, he linked A. with regulation of ideomotor motions (see Ideomotor Act) achieved in perceiving and conceiving objects. In contemporary psychology, studies of A. are performed within the framework of general psychology, and also engineering psychology, psychology of labour, neuropsychology, medical psychology, developmental psychology, and pedagogic psychology. Three forms of A. are distinguished. The simplest and genetically initial form is involuntary A., which is passive in character, since it is imposed on the subject by events extraneous to the goals of his activity. Physiologically, this form of A. manifests itself through orientating reaction. If activity is achieved within the framework of the subject’s conscious intentions and requires volitional efforts on his part, one would speak of voluntary A., distinguished by an active nature, a complex structure mediated by socially developed organisation of behaviour and communication (2), and emerging in the process of practical activities. Socalled post-voluntary A. may appear in the course of development of the operational-technical aspects of activity in connection with its automation and due to the transition of actions into operations, and also owing to changed motivation, e.g. shift of the motive to the goal. In this case, the trend of activity would continue to correspond to consciously accepted goals; however, 29 its actualisation would no longer require special mental effort and would be restricted in time solely by tiredness and exhaustion of body resources (Nikolai Dobrynin). Selectivity, span, stability, distribution and potential switch-over of A. are among the characteristics determined experimentally. Selectivity of A. is due to the subject’s ability to successfully adjust himself (in case of hindrances) to perceiving information relating to some conscious goal. The number of objects that are distinctly comprehended simultaneously is taken for the span of A., which virtually does not differ from that of direct memorising, or from that of short-term memory (see Memory, Short-Term). This indicator would largely depend on the organisation and nature of the memorised material, and is usually taken to equal 5-7 objects. The span of A. is assessed by means of tachystoscopic presentation (see Tachystoscope) of many objects (letters, words, figures, flowers, etc.). To determine the subject’s ability to switch over and maintain stable A., researchers use investigation methods which allow them to describe the dynamics of cognitive and executive actions in time, for instance, with changed goals. Distribution of A. is examined when the subject simultaneously performs two or more actions which cannot be fulfilled through rapid consecutive switch-over of A. Soviet psychology has developed a theory in which A. is regarded as a function of the subject’s internal control of correspondence of mental actions to predevised programmes (Pyotr Galperin). Development of such control improves the results of any activity, specifically its regularity (see Stepwise Forming of Mental Actions, Concept of), and allows to overcome certain shortcomings of A., distraction, for instance. Soviet neuropsychologists are doing research into the brain mechanisms of A. (Yelena Khomskaya).

Attitude

Attitude, a subject’s readiness or predisposition in anticipation of a definite object (or situation); a state that ensures the stable and purposeful character of subsequent activity in relation to that object. The notion "A." was initially introduced into experimental psychology by German psychologists to designate some factor conditioned by past experience (like readiness to act in a given way), a factor determining the speed of reaction to a perceived situation and certain illusions of perception (Georg Miiller), and also to describe an unconscious state of readiness when a task is set, a state that conditions the trend of various mental processes (Narzis Ach). Later, the notion of A. was introduced into social psychology and sociology to designate subjective individual orientations of both group (or society) members to different values that prescribe specific socially-accepted ways of behaviour (William Thomas and Florian Znaniecki). The basic shortcoming of various interpretations of A. is that they actually limit the area of social regulation of human behaviour by certain abstract conditions. As an explanatory principle in studying mental phenomena, A. was most 30 extensively studied by Dmitri Uznadze and his school (see Set, Theory of). In general psychology, A. is used to study purposeful animal behaviour; psychophysiological mechanisms of body adaptation to anticipated situations; selectivity and orientation of mental processes; mechanisms of unconscious regulation of individual activity; and forming of individual character. In social psychology, A. is used to study the relationship of an individual as a group member to various social objects; selfregulation mechanisms; stability and coordination of social behaviour; and the process of socialisation and variation of A., say, under the influence of propaganda (see Psychology of Propaganda), and also to forecast possible forms of individual behaviour in specific situations. The function, effects and essence of A. are revealed in studying its role in activity regulation. The basic functions of A. in activity are as follows: (a) A. determines the stable, consistent, and purposeful nature of activity, and acts as its stabilisation mechanism allowing to preserve its orientation in continually changing situations; (b) A. frees the subject from the need to take decisions and voluntarily control his activity in standard, previously encountered situations; (c) A. may also act as a factor that causes inert activity and makes it difficult for an individual to adapt to new situations. The effects of A. are only directly revealed when the conditions of activity change. Hence, the activity “interrupting” technique is commonly used to study the phenomenon of A. For instance, the subject is asked to compare two different “ critical” objects after repeatedly being shown two different “attitudinal” objects (Uznadze’s set fixation method). The content of A. would depend on the place of the objective factor inducing that A. within the structure of activity. Depending on the objective factor of activity (motive, goal, condition) A. is directed at, psychologists distinguish three hierarchic levels of activity regulation, namely, meaning-related, goalrelated, and operational A’s. Meaningrelated A’s express an individual’s attitude, manifest in his activity, to the objects that have acquired a personalised meaning. In their origin, meaningrelated A’s are derivative from social A’s. Meaning-related A’s contain the informational component (individual’s world outlook and the image of the object to which he aspires), the component of affective assessment ( antipathies and sympathies towards meaningful objects), and the behavioural component (readiness to act in relation to an object that has a personalised meaning for the individual in question). By means of meaning- related A’s, the individual joins the system of norms and values of a given social medium (instrumental function); they help preserve his status quo in tense situations (function of self- defence) and promote individual selfassertion (value-expressive function). They also take the form of his desire to structure the personalised meaning of knowledge, norms, and values contained in given A’s (cognitive function) . Having appeared in specific activity, A’s may manifest themselves when 31 a person encounters similar meaningful objects and determine his behaviour in numerous similar situations. Such meaning-related A’s become generalised A’s, and then turn into personality traits. Unlike goal-related and operational A’s, which change in the course of training under the influence of speech and instructions, change in meaning-related A’s is always caused by change in individual activity per se. Goal-related A’s are determined by the action’s goal, and themselves determine the stable nature of that action. When an action is interrupted, goal-related A’s manifest themselves as dynamic tendencies to complete the interrupted action (see Unaccomplished Action Effect). Operational A. occurs in solving a problem by accounting for conditions that characterise the existing situation and for the probability forecast of those conditions, said forecast being based on past behavioural experience in similar situations. These conditions are seen in stereotyped thinking, conformity, and so on. The psychophysiological mechanisms that actualise various operational A’s manifest themselves in the body’s overall tone, which expresses the subject’s overall posture and certain preparation in the sensory and motor areas prior to initiating various action techniques.

Attitude Scale

Attitude Scale, a device used to compare individuals by the extent, strength and stability of their attitude to a given phenomenon. In applied sociology and social psychology, A.S. are used as a principal technique of data gathering, since here they are used to measure primarily personality traits. A.S. construction is connected with a selection of judgements that express the whole spectrum of possible attitudes of the subject to a given socio-psychological phenomenon. Every judgement is estimated by a group of experts using a rating scale to obtain an average score. A.S’s would include judgements that have the highest score; normally, not more than 25 of 300 judgements would be included in a ready A.S. These judgements are told to persons whose attitudes are to be studied and, depending on which judgements the subject chooses, he is given a summated score which is his position on the attitude scale.

Attitude, Social

Attitude, Social, see Attitude.

Attraction

Attraction, a feeling arising in interpersonal perception, rendering one person pleasant in the eyes of the other. The formation of A. in the subject is a result of the latter’s specific emotional attitude, whose evaluation produces an array of emotions (ranging from hostility to sympathy and even love) and manifest itself in a special social attitude towards the other person. Experimental research is conducted into the mechanisms of affection and friendly feeling formation (see Friendship; Love) in person perception; causation of positive emotional attitudes, in particular, the part played by similarity of the subject’s and object’s characteristics and by the situation in which they find themselves (e.g. the degree to which attraction formation between the partners in communication (1) is influenced by the ties between them, frequency of 32 their meetings, distance between them, etc., as well as the resultant conditions of interaction: "helping behaviour", joint activities, etc.). The explanation of the phenomenon of A. in terms of behaviourism (holding that A. occurs in conditions of “ reinforcement”) and cognitive psychology underestimates the part played by social, historical, and functional conditions of its development.

Attribution, Causal

Attribution, Causal, interpretation by the subject of the interpersonal perception of causes and motives of other persons’ behaviour. The study of A., C. proceeds from the following postulates: (1) when cognising each other, people go farther than acquiring externally perceived information and strive to establish the causes of the subject’s behaviour and to draw conclusions on personality characteristics; (2) inasmuch as information on a person acquired by observation is more often than not insufficient to draw reliable conclusions, the observer searches for possible behaviour causes and personality characteristics and attributes them to the observed subject; (3) this causal interpretation exerts a substantial influence on the observer’s behaviour. The study of A.,C., which originally pertained purely to social psychology, has currently extended to other branches of psychological science: general psychology, pedagogic psychology, developmental psychology, psychology of sport. Fritz Heider laid the foundations for the study of A.,C. and defined its fundamental categories and principles. The chief areas of study are interpersonal perception, self-perception, and perception of a broad class of other social objects. The more essential results of experimental research in this field boil down to defining: (1) systematic distinctions in a person’s explanations of his own behaviour and that of other people; (2) deviations of the process of A.,C. from the norms of logic under the influence of subjective ( motivational and informational) factors; (3) a stimulating effect exerted on a person’s motivation and activity by the explanation of unfavourable results through external factors, and of favourable results, through internal ones. Methods of practical application of A.,C. for the purpose of controlling emotions, attitudes, motivations, and efficiency of human activity are worked out on the basis of denned regularities. The development of this problem in Soviet social psychology is conducted on the basis of the methodological principle of workmediated process of A.,C. (Galina Andreyeva). A.,C. is also approached as a phenomenon of group members’ adoption of personal responsibility for successes and failures in the course of joint activities. It has been shown that for groups of a higher development level (collectives) this phenomenon is adequate to an actual contribution by collective members to the result of group activity. (See also Transference).

Authoritarianism

Authoritarianism, a socio- psychological characteristic of a style of management (leadership), manifested in concentration of complete power over others in the hands of one person, in removal of others from 33 decisionmaking on all major aspects of joint activities, in suppression of their initiative, and in pressures exerted upon them by predominantly coercive measures (see Leadership; Style of Leadership).

Authority

Authority, (1) command over others wielded by a group or an individual, based on recognition of their efficiency, knowledge, moral virtues, etc.; (2) recognition of an individual’s right to make decisions in situations significant for individuals or the group. In the former case, A. is sometimes identified with the notion of power. The second definition does not necessarily refer to power, for A. may be vested in a person who, though possessing no legal power, has a high degree of referentiality in the eyes of others.

Autogenic Training

Autogenic Training, a psychotherapeutic method of treatment consisting in teaching patients to achieve muscular relaxation and self-suggestion, concentrate attention, develop imagination, be able to control involuntary mental processes for the purpose of raising the efficiency of the subject’s activity. Two stages of A.T. are distinguished: (1) training in relaxation, self- induced sensations of weight, heat, and cold, showing that the patient is capable of regulating vegetative functions; (2) achievement of hypnotic states of various levels (Johann Schultz). A.T. is employed in the fields of medicine, sports, education, production, and selfeducation.

Autohypnosis (self-hypnosis)

Autohypnosis (self-hypnosis), hypnosis caused by self-suggestion, in 34 contradistinction to heterohypnosis induced by another person. Purposeful self- inducement of a hypnotic state is achieved through certain methods (see Hypnotisation). Propensity for A. depends on the physical and emotional state, personal characteristics, ability for self-regulation of physiological and mental functions. Currently A. is employed as a method of autogenic training.

Automatism (in psychology)

Automatism (in psychology), = performance of action in which consciousness is not directly involved. We distinguish between “primary” A. and “secondary” A. The first category includes innate reflex actions, the second—those A’s which develop in the course of individual life. The latter is the type of A. whereby a uniform rigid relation develops between certain aspects of the given situation and a series of consistent operations which have previously required conscious orientation. Consequently, there is no longer a need lo orient oneself in the situation and in the actual execution of certain operations (by virtue of their standard nature). The rise of a significant situation (or the presence of a significant aspect of the situation) immediately launches the entire series of operations. If, in the case of “secondary” A., a need arises to return to conscious orientating (due lo mistakes in or barriers to A.), “ deautomatisation” may occur. Normally, automatism is a component of a consciously regulated action; isolated A. signifies pathology. Motor, speech, and intellectual A’s are recognised. A’s are studied both by general psychology 35 (skill development) and in applied psychology (see Medical Psychology; Engineering Psychology).

Aviation Psychology

Aviation Psychology, the branch of psychology that deals with psychological characteristics peculiar to various areas of aviation and their dependence on a number of factors: aviation technologies, personality traits, flight missions, flight conditions, training methods. A.P. is concerned with the study of psychological principles regulating various types of activities involved in aviation and their application in the training and education of air pilots. Research in this field is oriented towards improvements in the organisation of flights, routine of air pilots’ work and leisure, practice of flight expert analysis. The rise of A.P. in the USSR laid the basis for the development of space psychology, playing a major part in the exploration of outer space.