Emacs-File-stamp: "/home/ysverdlov/leninist.biz/en/1986/SCAD300/20070925/099.tx" Emacs-Time-stamp: "2010-01-21 14:19:35" __EMAIL__ webmaster@leninist.biz __OCR__ ABBYY 6 Professional (2007.09.25) __WHERE_PAGE_NUMBERS__ bottom __FOOTNOTE_MARKER_STYLE__ [0-9]+ __ENDNOTE_MARKER_STYLE__ [0-9]+ [BEGIN] __TITLE__ The Soviet Constitution
A Dictionary __TEXTFILE_BORN__ 2007-09-25T14:22:43-0700 __TRANSMARKUP__ "Y. Sverdlov"

Progress Publishers

Moscow

[1]

Translated from the Russian

Designed by Gennady Gubanov

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Contributors: T. Ye. Abova, V. G. Boyarshinov, Yu. V. Dolgopolov, N. P. Farberov, M. G. Galkin, V. N. Kudryavtsev, O. Ye. Kutafin, B. N. Lazarev, A. I. Lukyanov, V. A. Maslennikov, G. S. Ostroumov, A. S. Pavlov, R. A. Safarov, N. G. Salishcheva, I. S. Samoshchenko, M. A. Shafir, G. Kh. Shakhnazarov, A. I. Shchglik, Ye. K. Smirnitsky, V. K. Sobakin, L. A. Steshenko, B. A. Strashun, B. N. Topornin, N. V. Vitruk, N. A. Zolotarev ~

Edited by V. N. Kudryavtsev, A. I. Lukyanov
and G. Kh. Shakhnazarov Compiled by B. N. Topornin

__COPYRIGHT__ © &russian; , 1982
English translation © Progress Publishers 1986
Printed in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

K

1203020000--586 014 (01)-86

65--86

[2]

THE NATIONAL ANTHEM
~ of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ~

An unbreakable Union of freeborn Republics
Great Russia has welded forever to stand;
Created in struggle by will of the peoples,
United and mighty,our Soviet Land!

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Hail to our Motherland, free from oppression,
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Bulwark of peoples in brotherhood strong!
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ The Party of Lenin, strength of the nation,
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Leads us to communism steadfastly on!

Through tempests the sun of our freedom blazed for us,
The greatness of Lenin shone bright in the lead;
The peoples he roused to a cause just and glorious,
Inspired us in work and in valorous deed!

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Hail to our Motherland, free from oppression,
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Bulwark of peoples in brotherhood strong!
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ The Party of Lenin, strength of the nation,
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Leads us to communism steadfastly on!

The communist way shall prevail in our own land,
In its great triumph our future we see,
And to the Red Flag of our glorious homeland
Devoted and loyal we ever shall be!

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Hail to our Motherland, free from oppression,
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Bulwark of peoples in brotherhood strong!
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ The Party of Lenin, strength of the nation,
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Leads us to communism steadfastly on!

Music by A ALEXANDROV

Words by S. MIKHALKOV and G. EL-REGHISTAN

[3] ~ [4] __NOTE__ Next is in RED ... and so are other objects, like page numbers. __ALPHA_LVL1__ A Constitution Created
by the People

A number of political documents of different periods have exerted tremendous influence on the establishment of political institutions and on the theory and practice of social development: the English Magna Carta, which dates back to the 13th century and the Declaration of the Rights of Man proclaimed in France in 1789 are but two examples. But the Soviet Constitution---the Fundamental Law of the world's first socialist statestands apart.

The various Soviet constitutions reflect the landmarks of Soviet society's progress towards socialism and communism. The first legal acts of the Soviet state, and, especially, Lenin's Declaration of Rights of the Working and Exploited People, formed the basis for the first Soviet Constitution---the Constitution of the RSFSR adopted in 1918.

The next, 1924 Constitution signified the formation of the Soviet socialist federation. But the union of the working class and all the working people representing the nationalities living in Russia had been established prior to the adoption of this Constitution, the October Revolution of 1917 being the common cause of all the peoples and the result of their joint efforts. The 1924 Constitution that legally embodied the formation of the USSR was based on Lenin's nationalities policy, which proclaimed as its ultimate objective the progress and closer union of the nations, their voluntary and equal cooperation and friendship.

A major event in the development of Soviet statehood was the promulgation of the 1936 Constitution of the USSR. This document established legally that the Soviet Union had built the foundations of socialism and a society in which the exploitation of man by man and national oppression had been abolished.

The latest Soviet Constitution was adopted in 1977; it has formulated the provision on developed socialist society, a logical stage in the advance towards communism.

5

All Soviet constitutions rest on the fundamental principles of socialist statehood: the state based on socialist ownership of the means of production; state authority concentrated in the hands of the working people led by the working class and its vanguard, the Communist Party; democracy for the working people, which implies both their participation in administering the affairs of society and their extensive social and political rights.

These principles may be developed and complemented, but basically they remain unchanged and serve as the foundation of the Soviet socialist state. But, of course, each new constitution reflects the fact that the country has made another step towards the future.

A constitution is a society's fundamental law that mirrors its life. Apart from defining the organisational principles of political structure, the purpose and functions of bodies of state authority and the types of relations between the state and the citizen, it also conveys the spirit of the law-giver, the goals of a given society, the views and ideas concerning the purpose, nature and objectives of state authority.

This applies in full to the 1977 Soviet Constitution. Its historical significance lies in the fact that it reflects the growth of the state of proletarian dictatorship into a state of the whole people. As the 27th CPSU Congress noted, the most significant changes in the economic, public, and intellectual life of Soviet society and the profoundly democratic character of the state of the whole people are telescoped in the new Constitution of the USSR.

The conclusion concerning the emergence of the state of the whole people had been reached a few years before the Constitution was adopted, but a great deal of work was done in order to define the concrete features of this state in the new fundamental law.

First and foremost, the transition to the state of the whole people implies that socialist democracy has been further extended. This is reflected in the more active role played by the representative bodies of state authority (Soviets of People's Deputies at all levels); stricter and more extensive control exercised by the electors 6 and all Soviet citizens over the work of state and social bodies; the expansion of the citizens' social rights (specifically, the 1977 Constitution was one of the first to establish the right to housing, free medical care and scientific, technical and artistic work), as well as of political rights and freedoms (the Constitution states that citizens have a right to criticise shortcomings, to lodge complaints against actions of officials, government and bodies, and to appeal against their illegal decisions in a court of law); me enhanced role of work collectives not only as productive but also as socio-political units of society; the consolidation of socialist legality and more reliable guarantees against any breaches or socialist law and order.

Second, with the transition to the state of the whole people, the overall structure of state administration and the process of management are to be improved, for such a state requires a large amount of organisational work to run the economy.

One of the chief ways a socialist state differs from a bourgeois one is the vast role played by the state in running the economy. Now that the Soviet economy has become developed and major social problems involved in building a communist society have been tackled, this function has in fact ceased to be purely economic and organisational, and has grown into the management of socio-economic processes.

The 1977 Constitution describes the basic principles behind the activity of the state in this field, its objectives with respect to planned economic development, the introduction of scientific and technical achievements, and the use of economic levers. The document stresses the necessity to subordinate all economic development to the improvement of the people's material and cultural standard of living.

The state of the whole people is doing a great deal to encourage cultural advances and help the people become worthy members of a communist society. The Constitution confirms the obligation of the state to provide favourable conditions for the harmonious development of the individual. At the same time, it quite clearly and directly limits the state's influence 7 on the citizens' private lives. For the first time in the history of the world, the state has officially declared as its ultimate goal the ideal set forth by Marx and Kngels in their Manifesto of the Communist Party. "The free development of each is the condition for the free development of all.''^^1^^

The Constitution establishes the foundations of the USSR social system and policy, the rights, freedoms and duties of citizens and the organisational principles and goals of the socialist state of the whole people. Declaring these principles, the Constitution gives a better idea of the advantages of the new social system than volumes that have been written about the subject.

Indeed, does not the fact that the Soviet Constitution guarantees all Soviet citizens the right to work, the right to rest and leisure, and the right to education and housing offer proof of the advantages of socialism? As compared to the 1936 Constitution, the number and extent of the people's rights provided for by the 1977 Constitution have grown, and their guarantees have become more complete and substantial---in other words, it is emphasised that Soviet society is steadily developing, giving the working people more and better advantages and benefits.

It should also be mentioned that the Soviet Constitution does not merely oblige the state to maintain peaceful coexistence with other countries, but states that its goal is to promote peace, disarmament and international cooperation by every means at its disposal.

Another important point which also serves to prove the advantages of the socialist state system is the very mechanism of writing the new Soviet Constitution. To begin with, the draft was produced by collective endeavour. The USSR Supreme Soviet organised a Constitutional Commission which consisted of prominent Party and state functionaries, and representatives of the working class, collective farm peasantry and intelligentsia belonging to practically all nations and nationalities living in the country. Scientists, specialists, _-_-_

^^1^^ Karl Marx, Frederick Engels, "Manifesto of the Communist Party'', in K. Marx, F. Engels, Collected Works, Vol. 6, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1976, p. 506.

8 lawyers, experienced workers of the state apparatus and social organisations, all helped the Commission in its work. The Draft Constitution was considered at two special Plenary Meetings of the CPSU Central Committee and sessions of the USSR Supreme Soviet and the Supreme Soviets of the Union and Autonomous republics. This made it possible to improve, elaborate and refine the Constitution's articles, not only from the point of view of political content but with regard to legal form and clarity.

But the decisive stage in the work on the Constitution was the nation-wide discussion which was conducted from the moment the draft was made public until it was adopted on October 7, 1977 by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Almost the entire adult population took part in the discussion, which was held at enterprises and organisations, at Party, trade union and YCL meetings, during the sessions of all local Soviets, at open debates broadcast over the radio and television and in the press. Approximately 400,000 suggestions on possible improvements were made. Actually, it could be said that for four months the whole Soviet people acted as legislators, summing up the development of Soviet statehood over 60 years and articulating their ideas concerning the Fundamental Law of developed socialist society.

The chief result of the discussion was that the Constitution was unanimously approved, with additions and suggestions made to it.

Most of the suggestions reveal the people's sound knowledge of the political structure of socialism, the functions, meaning and purpose of the state mechanism, and a profound awareness of the goals of communism and the level of maturity attained by socio-economic relations. This reveals the great headway made by the country in a relatively short period: from Russia as it was in October 1917, with three-quarters of its population illiterate, to the mass involvement of the people in the political and social life of the country. The striving towards this goal was one of the major motive forces of the cultural revolution launched by Lenin.

9

The discussion about the Draft Constitution proved that the Soviet people were capable of making a qualified assessment of the various aspects concerning their society. The experience of the USSR and of the other socialist states reveals that allegations made by bourgeois sociologists that the people play a lesser role in administering the society as governing functions become increasingly involved are totally false.

As a result of the discussion, 118 articles of the Constitution were partially or considerably modified, and one new article added. It is entirely reasonable to say that the new Soviet Constitution was written by millions and millions of Soviet people---in fact, the whole people.

The discussion of the Constitution and its adoption stimulated theoretical research, including attempts to assess the work accomplished in those important days. A great deal is being done to predict the course of the development of the political system of socialist society, which continues to improve, thus proving once more that the future belongs to socialism.

__*_*_*__

The historical significance of an event---and this naturally applies to political documents---is hard to assess at the actual time of its occurrence. From the moment its draft was published, the 1977 Soviet Constitution has won the acclaim of the champions of progress and socialism. In the countries of the socialist community, it was received as the Charter of socialism. It has also aroused considerable interest in the socialist-oriented states where government leaders have expressed their intention to borrow not only its general approach to the objectives of political organisation but some of the methods of developing democracy. Leaders of communist and workers' parties and other progressives in the capitalist countries stated that the new Soviet Constitution would be a great help in their efforts to win over new sections of the working people to the side of socialism.

10

Since it was adopted, the Constitution of the state of the whole people has exerted tremendous influence upon the legislation of not only socialist countries but those of progressive regimes in the developing countries. It has also served as an impetus for assessing the functions and purpose of the state in the modern revolutionary epoch. But, even though the effect of the Soviet Constitution on the course of social development is tangible enough, its full impact will become clear only with the passage of time.

This alphabetically indexed reference-book will facilitate the reader's search for information. The entries describe the social and economic prerequisites, principles and norms of the Constitution of the USSR, their content, the ways and means of implementing them, and the advantages of the socialist way of life.

[11] __ALPHA_LVL1__ A __ALPHA_LVL2__ Administrative and Territorial Structure.

Under the USSR Constitution, "The jurisdiction of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, as represented by its highest bodies of state authority and administration, shall cover:

``1. ...endorsement of the formation of new autonomous republics and autonomous regions within Union Republics...'' (Art. 73). Art. 79 reads: "A Union Republic shall determine its division into territories, regions, areas, and districts, and decide other matters relating to its administrative and territorial structure.''

The USSR is divided into administrative and territorial structures, with due regard to historical, national and economic features, in accordance with which the system of local Soviets and social bodies is organised. The scientific principles of the administrative and territorial structure of the USSR were developed by Lenin and Party decisions.

The Soviet A. and T. S. evolved gradually. After the Revolution, it toek 'time to dispense with the uyezdgubernia-volost system inherited from tsarist Russia. Between 1921 and 1930, the transition was made to the region (territory )-area-district system, during which local Soviets were granted extensive rights, this considerably facilitated the management of economic and cultural matters. To further consolidate the regions, the area subdivision was dispensed with in 1930.

At present, the basic units of the A. and T. S. are territories, regions, cities and towns, rural districts and urban-type settlements and rural Soviets.

The A. and T. S. of Union republics is very flexible. This makes it possible to consider the economic, geographical and other characteristic features of each individual republic.

Specifically, the RSFSR has territories, regions, autonomous regions, autonomous areas and all other administrative and territorial units. There are no autonomous regions or autonomous areas in the Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Kazakh SSR, Uzbek 12 SSR and Turkmen SSR, but all these Union republics are divided into regions. In Kirghiz SSR and Tajik SSR, only part of these republics' territories is divided into regions. The other Union Republics are not divided into regions at all (although the Georgian SSR and the Azerbaijan SSR include autonomous regions); the highest administrative and territorial unit in these republics is a rural district.

The Constitutions of the Union republics establish the list of administrative and territorial units within them. Consequently, any changes in their composition require necessary amendments in their Constitutions. The same applies to the Autonomous republics, whose Constitutions also contain a list of the districts and towns within the autonomous republic.

As concerns the administrative and territorial units not mentioned in the Constitutions, their formation and transformation, as well as the classification of populated centres, are made in conformity with the procedure established by the legislation currently in force. When the need arises, in those republics with a regional (territorial) structure, it is usually the prerogative of the Executive Committee of the Regional or Territorial Soviets of People's Deputies to deal with such matters as the formation, unification or liquidation of rural Soviets; to transfer their administrative centres, give rural Soviets or populated centres over to another district within the same region or territory; register the formation of new populated centres, etc.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ All-Union Leninist Young Communist League

(the YCL). Art. 7 of the Constitution reads that "the AilUnion Leninist Young Communist League ... and other social organisations, participate, in accordance with the aims laid down in their rules, in managing state and public affairs, and in deciding political, economic, and social and cultural matters''.

The YCL is a mass socio-political organisation uniting in its ranks the best and most active Soviet young people. It is the reserve and a vigorous assistant to the Communist Party. The YCL was established at the First All-Russia Congress of Unions of the Worker 13 and Peasant Youth held on October 29, 1918. In 1924, it was named after Lenin. For its outstanding contribution to the establishment of the Soviet system, the building of socialism, defence of the country in the Civil, 1918--1922, and the Great Patriotic War, 1941-- 1945, and the reconstruction and development of the economy in the postwar years, the YCL has been decorated with three Orders of Lenin, the Order of the October Revolution, the Order of the Red Banner, and the Order of the Red Banner of Labour.

Under its Rules, the YCL is an organisation built on the principle of democratic centralism (q. v.). In its work, it relies on collegiate leadership, the steady advance of inner-league democracy and initiative of all its members, criticism and self-- criticism. The YCL works under the direct guidance of the CPSU, and vigorously promotes Party policy in all fields of building communism in the country.

In early 1985, the YCL had over 40 million members. Its chief objective is to help the youth consciously accept and act on the principles of Marxism-Leninism, imbibe the revolutionary and labour traditions of the older generation, develop class and political awareness and show an active, creative approach to life and work.

Under the Constitution, the YCL has a right to nominate candidates for Soviets of People's Deputies, send its representatives to electoral commissions set up during the elections to the Soviets of People's Deputies, and to initiate legislation. In 1980, 21.1 per cent of local Soviets' deputies were YCL members. The USSR Supreme Soviet elected on March 4,1979 had 207 YCL members, or 13.8 per cent of the deputies.

The YCL takes an active part in nationwide discussions of bills and in the legislative work of state bodies. It has its representatives on the boards of ministries and departments of state administration whose activities directly concern young people, takes part in the exercise of control over the work of the state administration apparatus through bodies of People's Control and "YCL Searchlight" organisations.

The YCL has launched a great number of challenging production drives. Tens of millions of its members 14 have met plan targets of the 11th Five-Year Plan ahead of schedule. Hundreds of thousands of young people gave up their jobs and completely changed their lives to take part in new construction projects.

The YCL has a ramified network of political education groups, works to involve young people in the cultural ventures, the development of science, and in technical and artistic creation. Millions of YCL members are engaged in technological and scientific research making their contribution to accelerating progress in this field. The YCL encourages young people to go in for sports, take part in the work of the USSR Voluntary Society for the Assistance to the Army, Air Force and Navy, and to train themselves to be able to defend their country should the need arise. Its members work in progressive international youth and students' organisations.

The 27th CPSU Congress stated that the YCL should make a more important contribution to the education of the rising generation and the effort to accelerate the country's social and economic progress. The YCL should help the young people evolve a conscientious and creative attitude to work and a Marxist-Leninist world outlook, to develop political culture and moral qualities, raise their cultural standards and enhance their sense of responsibility for the future of socialism and peace.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Amnesty.

Under Art. 121 of the USSR Constitution, the right to issue acts of A. is vested in the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. The act of conferring A. on citizens convicted by a court of a Union Republic falls within the jurisdiction of the republican highest bodies of state authority.

An all-Union A. is carried out through the edicts of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet. The range of persons and categories of offences falling under the A. and the procedure of its application to individual citizens are established by each individual edict.

For humane purposes, A. is most often granted to women, especially pregnant ones and mothers of 15 young children; to minors, the aged, and invalids; to first or unintentional offenders; to persons convicted for crimes which do not present a major threat to society, and to persons whose penalty does not involve deprivation of liberty or who have been sentenced to a short term of imprisonment. As a rule, A. releases a person from serving the rest of the primary or additional sentence; reduces the remaining term of imprisonment; mitigates punishment; releases from punishment short of a full term; enforces abandonment of investigation or court proceedings instituted for a specified category of offense.

To persons under judicial examination, A. is granted by the investigatory bodies. The person against whom court proceedings are under way is granted A. by the court of law. In the rest of the cases, the granting of A. is decided by the bodies established specifically for the purpose.

As a rule, A. cannot be extended to persons who have committed serious offences, to recidivists, or to persons who were granted A. or pardoned and then committed another offence. A. cannot be granted to persons who persistently violate the rules while serving their penalty.

Acts of A. are usually timed to coincide with redletter days in the history of the country (the October Revolution anniversary, the victory of the Soviet people in the Great Patriotic War, 1941--1945) or in international life. The A.s of 1975 and 1979 were granted to mark International Women's Year and the International Year of the Child.

Measures have been worked out in the Soviet Union to assist the persons released under an A. to re-adjust to society and resume socially useful work.

An act of A. should be distinguished from a pardon (q. v.), where the highest body of state authority releases one individual offender from punishment.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Anthem, National

---see National Anthem of the USSR.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Armed Forces of the USSR.

"In order to defend the gains of socialism, the peaceful labour of the Soviet 16 people, and the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the State, the USSR maintains armed forces and has instituted universal military service.

``The duty of the Armed Forces of the USSR to the people is to provide reliable defence of the Socialist Motherland and to be in constant combat readiness, guaranteeing that anv aggressor is instantly repulsed'' (Art. 31)

The A. F. of the USSR embody the military might of the Soviet Union and ensure the defence of the country trorn any outside military aggression. An important dmv or the A. F. of the USSR as the army of a Warsaw Treaty member-state is to defer aggression not only against the Soviet Union but against other socialist countries as well. In case of military attack against this country or in fulfilment of an international treaty obligation to mutually repulse aggression, the A. F. of the USSR are to suppress and crush the aggressor's forces. The invincible strength ot the Soviet A. F. stems from the might of their armaments, their close moral and political unity, and indissoluble link with the people. Apart from their defence function, ttie USSR A. F. do a great deal to educate young people in the traditions of collectivism, teach them Jisaphnc, encourage friendship between representatives !>! different nationalities, and raise the professional skill of the young people during the term of their military service.

The decisive role the Soviet A. F. played in the victors in the Great Patriotic War is stressed in the Preamble to the Constitution of the USSR, which speaks ol "the immortal feat of the: Soviet people and their Armed Forces''. Art. 32 of the Constitution states that "the state ... supplies the Armed Forces of the USSR with everything necessary" for the purpose of ensuring the security and defence capability ot the country. Direction of the A.F. of the USSR falls within the jurisdiction of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, as represented by its highest bodies of state authority and administration (Art. 73). The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR institutes military ranks, confers the highest military ranks, and appoints __PRINTERS_P_17_COMMENT__ 2-1192 17 and dismisses the high command of the A. F. of the USSR (Art. 121). General direction of the development of the Armed Forces is exercised by the Council of Ministers of the USSR, which also determines the annual contingent of citizens to be called up for active military service (Art. 131). Art. 63 states that "military service in the ranks of the Armed Forces of the USSR is an honourable duty of Soviet citizens''.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Arrest.

Under Art. 54 of the USSR Constitution, no one may be arrested except by a court decision or on the warrant of a procurator.

An A., the taking into custody of a person accused of committing a crime, can be made if there is sufficient ground to believe that, if left at large, the accused will try to avoid the investigation and court hearing, obstruct the establishment of the truth in a criminal case or engage in criminal activities. An A. is also made to ensure execution of the sentence. This measure is resorted to only when dealing with offences which are punishable by imprisonment under the law, or, when a serious offence has been committed, on the grounds of the danger presented by the offence.

The question of taking into custody is settled by the official investigator or the person who is conducting the inquiry (on approval of the procurator's office), or by a procurator or court. The length of preliminary imprisonment is not to exceed two months, or nine months when the case is particularly complicated (a fact established by a superior procurator). As an exception, a person may be taken into custody on suspicion of committing a crime. In this case, he must be informed of the charges against him not later than after ten days; if no charges are brought against him, this person is to be released.

Only a limited number of procurators are given the right to issue a warrant for an A. When considering this matter, the procurator is obliged to thoroughly examine all the materials in the case. If the suspect or accused is an adult, the procurator personally questions him whenever he feels it necessary; if the suspect is a minor, questioning is a routine procedure. 18 A court decision to take the defendant into custody is always collegial.

The law guarantees the person arrested his procedural rights, including the right to appeal against the A. The rules of keeping in custody were established by the Statute on Preliminary Remanding in Custody adopted by the Law of the USSR of July 11, 1969.

A. as remanding in custody should be distinguished from other law-enforced measures involving detention of citizens. Administrative A. for up to 15 days is used by a judge in People's Court as a penalty for specified administrative offences, e.g. petty hooliganism. As a disciplinary measure, A. is used in accordance with disciplinary rules (e.g., an A. involving confinement in the guard-room is a measure provided for by the Code of Discipline of the USSR Armed Forces).

The body conducting the investigation and the official investigator have a right to detain a person suspected of having committed a crime, but each such case is to be reported to the procurator within 24 hours. And within 48 hours after receiving the report, the procurator is obliged to issue a warrant for the arrest or the release of the person detained. The lawfulness of such measures is controlled by the officials concerned and is subject to supervision by the procurator.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Autonomous Area.

"An Autonomous Area is a constituent part of a Territory or Region. The Law on an Autonomous Area shall be adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the Union Republic concerned" (Art. 88).

The A.A. is a form of statehood of national and ethnic groups living in the country's Far F.ast and Far North. At present, the RSFSR includes 10 A.A.s listed in its Constitution, which also states that the Law on an A.A. is to be adopted by the RSFSR Supreme Soviet. The RSFSR Law on Autonomous Areas (1980) contains the more general principles determining the legal status of all A.A.s, their relations with the republican, territorial and regional bodies, and the competence and manner of functioning of the Soviets of People's Deputies and other bodies of state authority and administration of an A.A. In the Soviet of 19 Nationalities of the USSR Supreme Soviet, each A.A. is represented by one deputy.

Under Art. 116 of the RSFSR Constitution, the formation of new A.A.s is to be endorsed by the Presidium of the RSFSR Supreme Soviet.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Autonomous Region.

"An Autonomous Region is a constituent part of a Union Republic or Territory. The Law on an Autonomous Region, upon submission by the Soviet of People's Deputies of the Autonomous Region concerned, shall be adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the Union Republic" (Art. 86).

A.R. is a national and state formation in the USSR which gives the small nations and national groups an opportunity to develop freely. State authority is vested in the Soviet of People's Deputies of the A.R. In the Soviet of Nationalities of the USSR Supreme Soviet, the A.R. is represented by 5 deputies.

At present, the RSFSR includes the Adygei, GornoAltai, Jewish, Karachai-Circassian and Khakass A.R.s. Each is a constituent part of a Territory, which is due to the historically established economic community of the areas. The Constitution of the RSFSR grants the bodies of state authority and administration of the A.R. the right to communicate with the corresponding bodies of the RSFSR either through Territorial bodies or directly.

The Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic includes the South Ossetian A.R. The A/.erbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic includes the Nagorno-Karabakh A.R. The Ta)ik Soviet Socialist Republic includes the GornoBadakhshan A.R. The establishment of new A.R. is subject to approval of the USSR Supreme Soviet upon submission by the Union Republic. The law on an A.R. adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the Union Republic upon submission by the Soviet of People's Deputies of the A.R. makes it possible to clearly define the legal status of each A.R., as well as the competence and manner of functioning of the Regional bodies of state authority and administration. By the end of 1981, republican laws on each A.R. had been adopted in the USSR.

20 __ALPHA_LVL2__ Autonomous Republic.

"An Autonomous republic is a constituent part of a Union Republic.

``In spheres not within the jurisdiction of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Union Republic, an Autonomous Republic shall deal independently with matters within its jurisdiction.

``An Autonomous Republic shall have its own Constitution conforming to the Constitutions of the USSR and the Union Republic with the specific features of the Autonomous Republic being taken into account" (Art. 82).

The A.R. is a Soviet socialist state formed on the principle of political autonomy.

At present, the USSR comprises 20 A.R.s. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic includes the Bashkir, Buryat, Daghestan, Kabardin-Balkar, Kalmyk, Karelian, Komi, Mari, Mordovian, North Ossetian, Tatar, Tuva, Udmurt, Chechen-Ingush, Chuvash, and Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics. The Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic includes the Nakhichevan A.R., the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic includes the Abkhasian and Adzhar A.R.s, and Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic includes the Kara-Kalpak A.R.

The A.R. forms its own highest bodies of state authority and administration. In matters within its jurisdiction, it exercises legislation. The territory of an A.R. may not be altered without its consent. The formation of new A.R.s is to be endorsed by the USSR Supreme Soviet. The A.R. shall ensure comprehensive economic and social development on its territory, facilitate exercise of the powers of the USSR and the Union Republic on its territory, and implement decisions of the highest bodies of state authority and administration of the USSR and the Union Republic.

An A.R. takes part in decision-making through the highest bodies of state authority and administration of the USSR and of the Union Republic respectively, in matters that come within the jurisdiction of the USSR and the Union Republic. Kach A.R. is represented in the Soviet of Nationalities of the USSR Supreme Soviet by 11 deputies. A wide range of 21 economic, social and cultural matters, as well as issues of state organisation fall within the jurisdiction of an A.R.

In matters within its jurisdiction, an A.R. coordinates and controls the activity of enterprises, institutions and organisations subordinate to the USSR or a Union Republic.

The emblem, flag and capital of an A.R. are established by its Constitution.

[22] __ALPHA_LVL1__ B __ALPHA_LVL2__ Bar.

Collegiums of advocates shall be available to give legal assistance to citizens and organisations...

The organisation and procedure of the bar shall be determined by legislation of the USSR and Union Republics (Art. 161).

The Bar is a voluntary association formed in collegiums of advocates. Its members render legal assistance to citizens and organisations, and its purpose is to safeguard the rights and legitimate interests of Soviet citizens and organisations, to help administer justice, observe and consolidate socialist law, and to ensure the strict and uniform observance of Soviet laws and the rules of socialist society by all citizens.

Structurally, the B. is made up of legal advice bureaus headed by collegiums of advocates' Presidiums in cities, towns and other populated centres. Advocates advise on legal matters; draw up requests, complaints (q. v.) and other legal documents; represent their clients in courts (q. v.), courts of arbitration and other state bodies dealing with civil cases and administrative offences; take part in preliminary investigation and court hearings dealing with criminal offences as counsel for the defence, on behalf of representatives of the injured party, civil plaintiffs, or civil defendants; and render other types of legal assistance to citizens and organisations.

The advocate is legally entitled, through the legal advice bureau, to request from state and other bodies certificates, references and any other documents he may require for giving legal assistance. These bodies are obliged to submit these documents or their copies in conformity with established procedure.

``In cases provided for by legislation citizens shall be given legal assistance free of charge" (Art. 161).

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Basic Duties of Citizens.

Under the Constitutions of the USSR and of the Union and Autonomous republics, the B.D.C. are universally mandatory standards which all citizens must comply with if the major interests of the state and society are to be upheld; thus, they 23 099-1.jpg represent a social imperative. Along with the B.D.C. enumerated in the Fundamental Law of the country, several other duties are listed in other legislative acts in effect (for example, duties of officials). The B.D.C. have changed in the course of history. The 1918 Constitution of the RSFSR (q. v.) included the duty to work and defend the socialist Motherland. The 1936 Constitution of the USSR (q. v.) contained the following B.D.C;.: observance of the Constitution of the USSR, adherence to the laws, maintenance of work discipline, honest attitude to one's civic duty, respect for the standards of socialist conduct, preservation and protection of socialist property and defence of the socialist Motherland. The 1977 Constitution of the USSR (q. v.) greatly expanded the list of B.D.C.

It stipulates certain rights and freedoms which are matched by citi/ens' duties. F'or example, along with their rights in social and economic fields, citi/ens are obliged to: work conscientiously in their chosen socially useful occupations; strictly observe labour discipline (Article 60 also stresses that evasion of socially useful work is incompatible with the principles of socialist society); preserve and protect socialist property (Art. 61); take good care of the housing allocated to them (Art. 44); protect nature and conserve its riches (Art. 67).

The rights of citizens in the cultural sphere are matched by the duty to preserve historical monuments and other cultural values (Art. 68).

The citizens' political rights and freedoms arc matched by their duty to safeguard the interests of the Soviet state, to enhance its power and prestige; to defend the Motherland (Art. 62) and do military service in the ranks of the Armed Forces of the USSR (q. v.) (Art. 63); to help maintain public order (q. v.) (Art. 65); to respect the national dignity of other citizens and to strengthen friendship of the nations and nationalities of the multinational Soviet state (Art. 64); and promote friendship and cooperation with peoples of other lands and help maintain and strengthen world peace (Art. 69).

The personal riohts and freedoms of citi/ens are 24 matched by corresponding duties which must be performed by all citizens: to observe the Constitution of the USSR and Soviet laws; to comply with the standards of socialist conduct (Art. 59); to concern themselves with the upbringing of children ( correspondingly, children are obliged to take care of their parents and help them^Art. 66); to respect the rights and lawful interests of other persons and to be uncompromising towards anti-social behaviour (Art. 65).

Soviet democracy implies a harmonious combination of public and personal interest and a high level of awareness of the citizens. Proper understanding by every citizen of his or her duty before society and the Motherland is an integral element of one's political and legal culture. The idea of the linkage between citizens' rights and duties is formulated in Article 59 of the Constitution of the USSR: ``Citizens' exercise of their rights and freedoms is inseparable from the performance of their duties and obligations.'' Performance of one's duties is as indispensable for the functioning of democracy as is the exercise of one's rights and freedoms.

The linkage between rights and duties is a universally recognised principle of democratic public life. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the UN in 1948 states, "K very one has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible.'' This provision is also included in the international covenants on human rights ratified and strictly observed by the USSR.

Presently a massive effort is under way to update and improve Soviet legislation on the basis of the Constitution of the USSR. A number of laws (q. v.) and legislative acts (q. v.) specify citizens' rights in different spheres of social life. Examples include Laws on Citizenship of the USSR (December 1978), On Universal Military Service (as amended and modified in December 1980), On Air Protection and On the Protection and Use of the Animal World (June 1980).

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Basic Rights and Freedoms of Citizens.

The Constitution of the USSR and the Constitutions of the Union 25 and Autonomous Republics affirm and guarantee the B.R.F.C. which ensure the satisfaction of the citizens' requirements and needs as well as those of the society and state.

The first Constitution of the Soviet country---the 1918 Constitution of the RSFSR (q. v.)---proclaimed and guaranteed such B.R.F.C. as the right to education, the right of association, the freedom of assembly, meetings and demonstrations, freedom of conscience and the expression of one's views, etc. The 1936 USSR Constitution (q. v.) affirmed the right to work, to rest and leisure, to material security, inviolability of the person and the home, the privacy of correspondence, etc. The B.R.F.C. were considerably extended in the 1977 Constitution of the USSR (q.v.).

The system of B.R.F.C. is comprised of rights and freedoms in the social and economic sphere, in culture, political activities and personal life of citizens. Many of the B.R.F.C. embrace several spheres of life. The B.R.F.C. are upheld and guaranteed by the Soviet state (see Protection of Rights and Freedoms of Citizens, Guarantees of Citizens' Basic Rights and Freedoms). They are inextricably linked to the basic duties of citizens (q. v.).

Social and economic rights and freedoms of citizens are those opportunities open to citizens of the USSR in everyday life, work and social security which are provided for and guaranteed by the Constitution of the USSR and the Constitutions of the Union and Autonomous Republics. They ensure the satisfaction of the people's material and intellectual requirements as well as the achievement of objectives of the state and society. They include the right to work, the right to rest and leisure, the right to health protection, the right to social security and the right to housing (Art. 40--44 of the Constitution of the USSR).

The right to work is the cornerstone of the entire structure of social and economic rights. It is primarily its exercise that produces material benefits, ensures the welfare of every citizen and that of the whole society, 26 serves as a source of initiative at work and creates confidence in the future. The right to work means guaranteed employment. The USSR Constitution states that this right includes the right to choose one's trade or profession, type of job and work in accordance with one's inclinations, abilities, training and education, with due account of the needs of society (Art. 40).

Unemployment was stamped out in the USSR in 1930 and the country has enjoyed full employment ever since. Presently there are about 6,500 workers' trades in the country.

The right to work is specified in current Soviet legislation. For example, Article 9 of the Fundamentals of Labour Legislation of the USSR and Union Republics (1970) states: "Groundless refusal to provide a job shall be prohibited by the law.'' Refusal of a job to an expectant mother may be a criminal offence. P^ nterprises maintain special vacancies for young people, including young workers, who have graduated from vocational schools and those who have graduated from institutions of higher learning and technical schools, in order to provide them with guaranteed placement in accordance with their trade or profession.

The right to work also includes the right to remuneration, which must not be lower than the state-- established minimum, in accordance with the quantity and quality of work.

The right to work is guaranteed by the entire system of the socialist economy, which ensures the steady growth of productive forces and, as a consequence, a permanent demand for work of persons of many different occupations. The state also provides free vocational and professional training, concerns itself with upgrading skills, teaching new trades and professions, and development of the system of vocational guidance and job placement (see Labour, People's Incomes, Social Consumption Funds).

The right to rest and leisure primarily involves the imposition of a limit on the length of working time. Under current legislation the working week of workers and other employees must not exceed 41 hours. For persons in many trades and industries shorter hours 27 have been introduced and as a consequence the working week is limited to 40, 39 and even 36 hours. For all workers and other employees shorter hours for night work have been provided for and a limit on overtime work imposed (see Working Time).

The USSR guarantees all its working people weekly days off and paid annual leaves. The Soviet state lavishes special care on working mothers, for whom Soviet legislation has instituted special measures to limit working hours, provide additionl leave, etc. (see Marriage and Family, Mothers and Children). Working pensioners also enjoy certain benefits as regards additional leave. The network of cultural, educational and health-building facilities is constantly growing. Approximately 20 per cent of all vouchers to sanatoria are issued free of charge, while the state subsidises about 70 per cent of them (recipients pay only 30 per cent).

The right to rest and leisure is also guaranteed by such measures as the development, on a mass scale, of sport, physical culture, camping and hiking; and by the provision of neighbourhood recreational facilities and of other opportunities for the rational use of free time by the working people.

All these guarantees of the right to rest and leisure are also enjoyed by rural dwellers. However, the Fundamental Law does not regulate the length of the working week for collective farmers. In view of the seasonal nature of agricultural work and the great diversity of natural conditions, the length of collective farmers' working and leisure time is established by collective farms themselves in accordance with their rules or work regulations with due account for the general principles of Soviet legislation. In the 11th Five-Year Plan period, the Government introduced the minimal duration of paid annual leaves for collective farmers equal to the minimal leaves of factory and office workers.

The right of citizens to health protection was written for the first time into the 1977 Constitution of the USSR. The state's concern about the people's health has resulted in the eradication of 28 a number of infectious diseases and a considerable increase in the average life expectancy.

The right to health protection is primarily ensured by free, high-quality medical care. In 1984, in the USSR there were 41.2 physicians of different specialities per 10,000 population (one of the highest ratios in the world).

The country has thousands of hospitals, outpatient clinics, health centres, clinics and other facilities within its system of public health (q. v.).

Medical research institutions are involved in a major effort to prevent and reduce the incidence of disease and ensure people a long and active life. The national economy continues work to improve occupational health and safety measures, noise abatement and atmospheric pollution control in urban areas and the accelerated development of a network of medical institutions in rural areas.

The state takes special care of the health of the younger generation (see Mothers and Children). It is prohibited by law to use the labour of children under 16. This does not exclude labour education of children and teenagers at school, in the family or on subsidiary plots of land. There are also plans to considerably extend the network of health centres, hospitals and sanatoria for children (see Public Health).

The right to maintenance in old age, in sickness and in the event of complete or partial disability or loss of the breadwinner is another important gain of socialism (see Material Maintenance).

Social security (q. v.) of Soviet citizens is provided free of charge, that is, at the expense of the state or collective farms. In the llth Five-Year Plan period the state increased its allocations for this purpose by almost 6 billion roubles. The pensionable age in the USSR---55 years for women and 60 years for men---is among the lowest in the world. In addition to pensions, allowances for temporary disability are provided. The state also concerns itself with providing employment for the disabled and the elderly. Veterans of the Great Patriotic War enjoy special privileges and care.

This state of affairs in the USSR sharply differs 29 099-2.jpg from the situation in the capitalist world. For example, in order to qualify for an old-age pension, American workers have to make annual contributions of 5.6 per cent of their wages; West Germany's workers---13.2 per cent. In the USA, West Germany, Sweden, the Netherlands, Norway and many other capitalist countries the pensionable age for men and women is 62--67'.

The right to housing was pioneered in the 1977 Constitution of the USSR. The provision of this right was made possible by the successful implementation of a vast programme of housing construction which daily enables 28,000 people to improve their housing conditions. The scale and quality of housing construction are steadily growing. In 1985 approximately 80 per cent of urban dwellers had separate apartments (see Housing).

The implementation of the programme of building well-appointed dwellings is accompanied by fair distribution of housing under public control and in accordance with quotas established by law.

To better provide Soviet citizens with well-- appointed dwellings, the state assists cooperative and individual house building in urban and rural areas. The state also concerns itself with the upkeep of state and sociallyowned housing.

The provision of free housing and maintenance of low rents in the Soviet Union has no parallel in the Western world. Working people in the USA, Canada, Sweden and other capitalist countries spend about one quarter of their wages on rents; millions of Americans live in slums. According to UN estimates, in the mid-1980s close to 200 million people in the world have no shelter.

Soviet citizens' rights and freedoms in the Afield of culture include opportunities in the spheres of education, access to cultural benefits, and scientific, technical and artistic work, provided for and guaranteed by the Constitution of the USSR and the Constitutions of the Union and Autonomous Republics (Arts. 45--47 of the Constitution of the USSR). The provisions of the Fundamental Law of the USSR on the rights and freedoms of citizens in the field of 30 culture (q. v.) are a reflection of the high level of the people's cultural maturity. Kxercise of the rights and freedoms in the field of culture contributes to the development of the creative potential of all the nations and nationalities in the USSR.

The right to education is one of the major gains of the country's working people (see Public Education). Educational provisions in the recent Constitution have been cosiderably extended over those proclaimed in the 1936 Constitution. The country has introduced universal compulsory secondary education.

Soviet citizens are entitled to free education, from primary school through institutes of higher learning. School and university students as well as postgraduates are provided with state scholarships and grants (see State Privileges for Students). The Constitution of the USSR provides for the development of not only general education but also of vocational and specialised secondary education. The Soviet educational system highlights practical and production activities in teaching.

The right to education is recorded in a number of legislative acts now in effect. For example, in accordance with the Fundamentals of Legislation of the USSR and the Union Republics on Education (1973) additional optional classes at secondary schools are organised to give the students every opportunity to develop their interests and abilities to introduce them to a trade or profession. Parents have the right to choose a school for their children where teaching is in the native language or in languages of other peoples of the USSR. Easy access to schools is ensured by their optimal location, free transportation of school students in rural areas to and from school and the provision of well-appointed boarding schools. The USSR provides for different forms of citizens' self-education (public lecture centres, people's universities, study courses, etc.), and material and organisational facilities required for this purpose are made available.

The right to enjoy cultural benefits is another right that was first recorded in the Soviet Constitution of 1977. It expresses the desire to raise the cultural 31 level of the working people which permeates all activities of the Soviet state aimed at moulding the citi/.en of a communist society.

Cultural benefits include the sum total of all human knowledge---literature, graphic arts, architecture, theatrical and other arts. The state ensures broad access to these national and world treasures which are preserved in state and other public collections (see Culture). The Constitution of the USSR (Art. 46) provides for the development of the media for the propagation of culture: theatres, cinemas, radio and television, the publishing of books, newspapers and periodicals, and ensures fair distribution of cultural and educational institutions throughout the country.

Another new feature of the 1977 Constitution of the USSR is the freedom of scientific, technical and artistic work. This right is ensured by broadening scientific research, encouraging invention and innovation and developing literature and the arts.

The Constitution of the USSR provides for a number of guarantees of this freedom. First of all, the guarantees apply to broad scientific research as well as invention and innovation. The rights of authors of scientificdiscoveries, inventions and production-improvement suggestions are protected by law. The state not only encourages research, invention and innovation bv providing the necessary material facilities and rendering support to scientific, technological ami other voluntary societies (q. v.), but also concerns itself with the introduction of inventions and innovations in production (for example, the USSR has a network of scientific and technical societies, and the All-Union Society of Inventors and Innovators has a membership of about 12 million). The state renders continuing support to unions of creative workers (q. v.)---artists', composers', writers' and other unions.

The political rights and freedoms of Soviet citizens allow them to take part in managing the state and public affairs and the workings of Soviet socialist democracy under the Constitution of the USSR and Constitutions of the Union and Autonomous republics. Political rights and freedoms in the 32 USSR express the very essence of socialist democracy. They include the right to take part in managing the affairs of the state and society, the right to criticism, freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly, meetings, and demonstrations, as well as the right to associate in non-government organisations (q. v.).

Toe right to take part in the management and administration of state and public affairs (Art. 48 of the Constitution of the USSR) is exercised in a number of forms. Citizens can elect deputies and be elected to Soviets of People's Deputies (q. v.) and other elective state bodies such as courts. They take part in the discussion and drafting of bills and decisions both of national and local importance. A dramatic example of public participation in deciding the affairs of the state was provided by the popular discussion of the draft of the new Constitution as well as the draft of the Law of the USSR on work collectives (1983), the draft of the CPSU Central Committee's Guidelines for a Reform of General Secondary and Vocational Education (1984), the draft of the new edition of the CPSU Programme, and the draft amendments to the CPSU Rules (1985).

This right provided for in Art. 48 can also be exercised in other forms, for example, by involving citizens in the work of state bodies and social organisations (as unpaid instructors, peoples' controllers and auditors, etc.). Working people take part in managing production and the affairs of work collectives (q. v.), they participate in meetings at their places of residence, and in forming local community groups (q. v.) such as volunteer public order squads, comrades' courts, etc.

The following facts illustrate how Soviet citizens exercise their right to manage the affairs of the state and society. At each election almost half of the deputies to Soviets are elected for the first time. The state machinery, including the economic apparatus, is made up of working people of all classes and social groups. For example, over 80 per cent of all Chairmen of Councils of Ministers of Union and Autonomous republics, and Executive Committees of territorial and __PRINTERS_P_33_COMMENT__ 3-1192 33 099-3.jpg regional Soviets, as well as about 70 per cent of the Ministers and Chairmen of USSR State Committees began their careers as workers or peasants. Over 50 per cent of the directors of major industrial enterprises in the country were once workers themselves.

All forms of the working people's participation in running the state and public affairs are aimed at taking into fuller consideration the masses' initiatives and interests in the work of the state machinery, and involving ever greater strata of the population in state and public activities.

Article 49 states that every citizen of the USSR has the right to submit proposals to state bodies and social organisations for improving their activity, and to criticise shortcomings in their work. This right has its roots in the democratic character of the Soviet system, and it is intimately linked to the right of citizens to take part in the management of state and public affairs. Further development of socialist democracy involves an uncompromising struggle against bureaucracy, red-tape and lack of discipline. The Party and the state leaders have repeatedly declared that all attempts at persecution for criticism must be resolutely rebuffed and those responsible for muffling criticism punished. The right to sibmit proposals and criticise shortcomings has been written into law. The Decree of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet on the Procedure for Considering Citizens' Proposals, Applications and Complaints obliges officials to thoroughly and carefully consider the essence of submitted suggestions, requests and complaints (q. q. v.). The Constitution emphasises that persecution for criticism is prohibited and persons guilty of persecution for constructive criticism and suggestions shall be called to account.

The Constitution of the USSR proclaims and guarantees all citizens of the USSR such political freedoms as freedom of speech, the press, assembly, meetings, street processions and demonstrations. All these freedoms can be exercised in accordance with the interests of the people and in order to strengthen and develop the socialist system. Exercise of these 34 political freedoms is ensured by putting public buildings, such as community centres, palaces of culture or theatres, as well as streets and squares of towns and other localities at the disposal of the working people and their organisations. The working people, their organisations and work collectives also have the opportunity to use the press, television, radio and other mass media.

The Constitution of the USSR guarantees freedom and equality, including political freedoms, not for some particular section of the population but for the whole of the Soviet people, including all classes and social strata. Citizens' rights and freedoms must not, however, be used against the socialist system or the socialist state. Slander of the socialist system, anti-Soviet propaganda or agitation are prohibited bylaw.

Western ideologists interpret political freedoms in an abstract manner, trying to conceal their real class content. The reality is that the bourgeois state has never tolerated the use of political freedoms against its interests anywhere.

Citizens of the USSR have the right to associate in mass organisations that promote their political activity and initiative and help satisfy their various interests (see Non-Government Organisations).

Leading representatives of the working class and collective farmers and people's intelligentsia are organised into the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which is the leading and guiding force of Soviet society and the nucleus of its political system, of all government and non-government organisations.

Personal rigfits and freedoms are opportunities provided for by the Constitution of the USSR and the Constitutions of Union and Autonomous republics to citizens of the USSR in their relations with other citizens, officials, state bodies and social organisations. These ensure their personal inviolability, protection of their honour, reputation, rights and legitimate interests.

The constitutional rights of Soviet people include the following personal for civil) rights and freedoms: 35 099-4.jpg protection by the state of the family, inviolability of the person and of the home; protection of the privacy of citizens, freedom of conscience, the right to protection in court and to compensation for damage.

The protection of the family by the state is a new constitutional right under Article 5 3 which states that the family enjoys the protection of the Soviet state (see Marriage and Family). This right is elaborated further in a number of legislative acts, primarily in the Fundamentals of Legislation of the USSR and the Union Republics on Marriage and the Family (1968).

Inviolability of the person is the right affirmed in Article 54 of the Constitution. No one may be put under arrest (q. v.) except by a court decision or on the warrant of a procurator.

Inviolability of the person is a major constitutional guarantee. Soviet criminal legislation provides for severe penalties for illegal arrest or detention, as well as for bringing in unlawful verdicts, for false denunciation or groundless accusation of a crime.

The Constitution provides for the protection of the privacy of citizens, including the privacy of their correspondence, telephone conversations and telegraphic communications (Art. 56). Opening and examining correspondence is permitted only in the case of an investigation of a crime in accordance with the law and on the warrant of a procurator.

Inviolability of the home is another measure for protecting the private life of citizens. The Constitution states that no one may, without lawful grounds, enter a home against the will of those residing in it (Art. 55).

These constitutional provisions are reinforced by other laws which, if breached, provide for civil and criminal responsibility. For example, under the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, breaching of the inviolability of the home and violating the privacy of correspondence of citizens are punishable by deprivation of freedom.

Freedom of conscience is the right to profess or not to profess any religion, and to conduct religious worship or atheistic propaganda (Art. 52).

To ensure freedom of conscience, the state permits 36 the activity of the church and other religious organisations, if they observe the Constitution of the USSR and the legislation in effect. In the USSR, incitement of hostility or hatred on religious grounds is prohibited. The church in the USSR is separated from the state and the school from the church. This means that religious organisations do not take part in deciding the affairs of the state. Religious education at school is not allowed.

Respect for the individual and protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens are the duty of all state bodies, social organisations and officials.

The Soviet state has a system of law enforcement agencies which concern themselves with upholding and safeguarding the citizens' rights. These include the Procurator's Office of the USSR (q. v.), the courts (q. v.), militia, and people's control (q. v.). The Constitution of the USSR guarantees the right of citizens to protection by the courts against encroachments on their honour and reputation, life and health, and personal freedom and property (Art. 57). All citizens have the right to lodge a complaint (q. v.) against the actions of officials, government and non-- government bodies. These complaints must be examined according to the procedure and within the time-limit established by law.

Actions by officials that contravene the law or exceed their powers, or infringe upon the rights of citizens may be appealed against in a court in the manner prescribed by law (Art. 58).

The USSR Constitution and operative legislation determine that citizens have the right to compensation of damage resulting from unlawful actions by government and non-government organisations or officials in the performance of their duties (see Damage). All these provisions are aimed at reinforcing socialist legality (q. v.), and safeguarding the rights and legitimate interests of the Soviet people.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Betrayal of the Motherland.

"Betrayal of the Motherland is the gravest of crimes against the people" (Art. 62 of the Constitution of the USSR).

37 099-5.jpg 099-6.jpg

B.M. (high treason) is premeditated act committed by a citizen of the USSR to the detriment of state independence, the territorial integrity or the military might of the Soviet state by going over to the side of the enemy, engaging in espionage, divulging an official or military secret to another state, escaping abroad or refusing to return to the USSR from abroad, rendering assistance to a foreign state in carrying out hostile activities against the USSR, or conspiring to seize state power. The responsibility for high treason is established by the USSR Law of December 25, 1958 On Criminal Responsibility for Crimes against the State.

High treason is punishable by deprivation of liberty for a term of from 10 to 15 years, or by the death penalty. The law establishes criminal responsibility for failure to report an act of high treason under preparation or perpetrated, and for concealment of the perpetrator of high treason (by hiding or rendering assistance).

At the same time, the law stipulates that a citizen of the USSR, recruited by a foreign intelligence service to conduct hostile activities against the USSR but having committed no actions to carry out the assignment and having reported voluntarily to the authorities his connection with the foreign intelligence service, is not held criminally responsible.

No objective conditions exist for the commitment of crimes of this kind in the Soviet state of the whole people where a new historical community, the Soviet people, has evolved and the socio-political and ideological unity of all Soviet citizens, patriots and internationalists, has been attained. Still, the imperialist powers, engaged in subversion and ideological sabotage against the USSR, try to persuade individual renegades and morally unstable persons to betray the Motherland. The current legislation on especially dangerous crimes against the state and the practice of its application guarantee the protection or the socialist Motherland against encroachments on its security. They are also conducive to the education of citizens of the USSR in a spirit of Soviet patriotism, political vigilance and contempt for traitors to the Motherland.

38 __ALPHA_LVL2__ Bodies of State Authority and Administration of the USSR.

"The Soviets of People's Deputies, i.e. the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Supreme Soviets of Union Republics, the Supreme Soviets of Autonomous Republics, the Soviets of People's Deputies of Territories and Regions, the Soviets of People's Deputies of Autonomous Regions and Autonomous Areas, and the Soviets of People's Deputies of districts, cities, city districts, settlements and villages shall constitute a single system of bodies of state authority" (Art. 89 of the Constitution of the USSR). Under the Fundamental Law of the USSR, Soviets of People's Deputies constitute the political foundation of the USSR through which the people exercise state power (Art. 2). In accordance with the principle of democratic centralism (q. v.), Art. 3 proclaims the electivity of all bodies of state authority from the lowest to the highest, their accountability to the people, and the obligation of lower bodies to observe the decisions of higher ones.

A system of state administration has been established for the conducting of day-to-day executive and administrative activities, as well as for the implementation of laws and other decisions of the Soviets. Under the leadership and control of the Soviets, different administrative bodies perform functions of forecasting, planning, managing, regulating, day-to-day supervision, control and accounting in all sectors of the economy and all spheres of social and cultural activities. The administrative bodies have under their jurisdiction numerous state enterprises, amalgamations and other economic organisations in industry, construction, agriculture, procurement, transport, communications, trade and public catering, services and utilities.

Administrative bodies marshal and dispose of material and financial resources in order to implement state plans. They maintain public order (q. v.) and ensure the country's defence and state security. Administrative bodies may enter into a relationship with citizens in matters concerning the fulfilment of the latter's rights and obligations.

Bodies of state administration are not exclusively concerned with administrative problems. They also 39 099-7.jpg take an active part in drawing up draft legislation and other decisions of the Soviets, such as plans for economic and social development.

Bodies of state administration primarily include executive and administrative organs which are formed or elected by corresponding Soviets of People's Deputies, (q. v.), These administrative bodies of broad competence include the Council of Ministers of the USSR, (q. v.) the Councils of Ministers of the Union and Autonomous Republics, and executive and administrative bodies of corresponding local Soviets of People's Deputies, i.e., their executive committees. Other bodies of state administration include ministries, state committees and departments of the USSR, Union and Autonomous republics, as well as sections, boards and other branch and functional bodies of the local Soviets' executive committees of equal status, as well as the managing bodies of state enterprises, institutions and organisations.

The Constitution of the USSR and the constitutions of the Union and Autonomous Republics define the basic features of the organisation and powers of corresponding bodies of state authority and administration in the USSR. They emphasise that working jointly with the Soviets and guided by them, these bodies exercise the powers of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics, Union and Autonomous Republics and local bodies in directing state, economic, social and cultural development.

[40] __ALPHA_LVL1__ C __ALPHA_LVL2__ Capital of the USSR.

"The Capital of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is the city of Moscow" (Art. 172 of the USSR Constitution). Moscow is the country's principal city, its administrative and political centre, and the seat of the higher bodies of state authority and administration. Moscow is also the capital of the RSFSR. In March 1918, the Extraordinary Fourth All-Russia Congress of Soviets passed a decision on transferring the capital, which motivated the need to move the capital of the RSFSR from Petrograd to Moscow. When the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was formed in 1922, Moscow became the C. of the multinational Soviet state as a whole, not just the RSFSR, and this was recorded in the Constitution.

Moscow is the major government, social, political, economic and cultural centre of the country. The CPSU Central Committee, the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet, the Soviet Government, and the ministries and state committees of the USSR are located in Moscow. Here, Party congresses and conferences are held, as well as the sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR.

For its outstanding service to the country, Moscow has been awarded the title of Hero-City. Its banner bears two Orders of Lenin, the Gold Star Medal, and the Order of the October Revolution.

Moscow has a diversified industry, and the city continues to grow as a major world centre of science and culture. Major seats of learning and science, including the USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow University, the Institute of Marxism-Leninism under the CPSU Central Committee, the Academy of Social Sciences under the CPSU Central Committee, the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences, and the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, are all found in Moscow. The city has hundreds of research institutes, about 80 higher educational establishments, over 140 vocational secondary schools and more than a 1,000 general secondary schools (as of the middle of the 1980s). Among the world-famous cultural and 41 educational centres are the Lenin Library of the USSR, the Tretyakov Art Gallery, the Bolshoi Theatre, the Moscow Conservatoire, and the Moscow Film Studio.

The C. of the USSR is an acknowledged centre of world progress, which proclaims and champions the principles of peace and friendship among nations.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Citizenship of the USSR.

In conformity with the Constitution of the USSR (Art. 33) and the Law of the USSR On Citizenship of the USSR (Art. 1), "Uniform federal citizenship is established for the USSR. Kvery citizen of a Union Republic is a citizen of the USSR.''

C. of the USSR is an individual's legal connection with the Soviet state, which means that the rights and duties defined by the Fundamental Law of the USSR and other Soviet laws are extended to that person. C. of the USSR is equal for all Soviet citizens, irrespective of how it is acquired.

The USSR Constitution proclaims the equality of all citizens before the law in all fields of the country's economic, political, social and cultural life, and establishes the basis of the legal status of Soviet citizens: they are obliged to uphold the honour and dignity of Soviet citizenship, to observe the Constitution of the USSR and Soviet laws, to safeguard the interests of the Soviet state, help to enhance its might and prestige, and be loyal to their country (Art. 34, 59--62).

The Law On Citizenship of the USSR establishes that citizens of the USSR are persons who possessed that C. as of the day when the law came into force (i.e. July 1, 1979) or have acquired it in conformity with this law. Soviet C. is acquired by birth, or may be granted; is conferred on the grounds provided for by international agreements signed by the USSR; on other grounds established by law.

Marriage of a Soviet citizen with a citizen of another country or a person without citizenship (as well as the dissolution of marriage) does not entail a change of citizenship of either of the spouses.

Dual citizenship is not recognised by Soviet law.

If at the time of birth of a child both parents have Soviet citizenship, the child is considered a Soviet 42 citizen, regardless of his place of birth; if the parents are citizens of different countries, and one of them is a citizen of the USSR, the question of the child's citizenship depends on the place of birth and where the parents have permanent residence.

Granting C. or the USSR to foreigners living abroad is the prerogative of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Presidiums of the Supreme Soviets of Union republics have a right to grant Soviet C. to a foreigner living on the territory of the republic in question.

Permission to denounce C. of the USSR may be given by the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet alone. Permission may be forbidden if it might harm the vital interests of other citizens, state or social organisations, or threaten the state security of the USSR.

If a citizen of the USSR has committed acts defaming this status or undermining the prestige or state security of the USSR, he may be deprived of C. of the USSR upon a decision of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet. The law also provides for reinstitution ofC. of the USSR.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Classes

---see Social Basis of the USSR.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Collective-Farm Peasants.

According to the Constitution of the USSR (Art. 19), the collective-farm peasants, jointly with the workers and intelligentsia, make up the unbreakable alliance which is the social basis of the USSR (q. v.).

The socialist system has done away with the poverty, absence of rights and downtrodden status of the peasants. Allied with the working class and under its leadership, the peasants have evolved from a class of small property owners into an essentially new social class, the economic activity of which is based on collective labour and the socialist collective ownership of the means of production.

The CPSU's agrarian policy and practical measures aimed at boosting agricultural production have strengthened the collective-farm economy, leading to the rapid social development of the countryside. A 43 significant role has been played by the introduction of guaranteed remuneration for the collective farmers' work and their coverage by the social security system established for factory and office workers, as well as by the higher cultural level and better living conditions in rural areas. The collective farmers' income from social production is steadily rising on the basis of expanded agricultural output. Much attention is also attached to, and the required conditions are being established for, the development of the collective farmers' personal subsidiary holdings.

The moulding of the new man is one of the main achievements of the collective-farm system. The current generation of collective farmers was brought up under a socialist system. Collective farming was an important school for them, totally altering their psychology. Private property interests were replaced by social ones and by the comradely spirit of collectivism.

The industrialisation of agricultural production and the transformation of collective farms into largescale mechanised and electrified units are accompanied by profound changes in the collective farmers' lives. On the basis of improving material and technical facilities of the collective farms, advanced technology and production organisation, the collective farmers develop better job skills while the nature of the farm work is also changing as it is gradually losing the features distinguishing it from industrial work. The number of agricultural machine operators and other operators of the latest equipment (e.g. machine operators, tractor, combine harvester and car drivers, etc.) in rural areas is constantly on the rise. The educational level of the collective farmers is also constantly growing, the share of those who have a secondary (complete and incomplete) and higher education rose from 39 to 69.5 per cent from 1970 to 1984.

The democratic principles laid down in the Model Collective-Farm Rules are applied on an increasing scale. The involvement of collective farmers in social and political life is broadening, as is their participation in managing public and state affairs. Collective farmers 44 comprised 16.3 per cent of the membership of the Tenth Supreme Soviet of the USSR and about 13 per cent of the CPSU membership.

The changes taking place on the Soviet farms contribute to further transformations of the social make-up and psychology of the peasant. The rural social structure is also greatly influenced by the gradual elimination of distinctions between the two forms of socialist property and the development of joint economic organisations with the participation of both the collective farms and the state-owned enterprises. All these factors foster the elimination of distinctions between the social status of the industrial workers and that of the peasants (see Collective-Farm and Cooperative Property).

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Collective-Farm-and-Cooperative Property.

"The property of collective farms and other co-operative organisations, and of their joint undertakings, comprises the means of production and other assets which they require for the purposes specified in their rules.

``The land held by collective farms is provided to them for their free use in perpetuity.

``The state promotes development of collectivefarm and cooperative property and its approximation to state property" (Art. 12 of the Constitution of the USSR).

Collective-farm and cooperative property is a form of socialist property. In 1984, there were 26.2 thousand collective farms in the USSR, comprising 12.6 million collective-farm households. The social property of the collective farms includes facilities for processing agricultural products, buildings, installations (land reclamation systems, etc.), equipment, draught and productive animals, plantations of perennial plants, materials (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, oil products and the like), agricultural products, monetary funds and other property.

The agrarian policy of the CPSU has turned the collective farms into large-scale mechanised agricultural units. Compared to 1940, in 1984 the area of the arable land was almost 5 times as large, there was more than 20 times as many head of cattle and more 45 than 21 times as many tractors on average per one collective farm. In 1984, the collective farms had 1,127 thousand tractors and 356 thousand grain harvesters. The collectively-owned livestock (as of the end of 1984) totalled 50.7 million head of cattle, 29.3 million pigs and 44.5 million sheep and goats.

The Soviet state promotes the development of collective-farm and cooperative property and its approximation to state property. The state provides the collective farms with agricultural equipment, fuel and fertilizers, extends long-term credits for production purposes, etc. The rapid development of agriculture leads to a high level of socialisation of collective-farm property, to broader cooperation among economic units and the proliferation of inter-collective-farm and joint state-and-collective-farm production associations as well as to the establishment of agro-industrial complexes. At the end of 1984 there were 10,113 such joint enterprises and organisations with 167.4 thousand participating economic units (such as collective and state farms and other state-owned and cooperative enterprises and organisations).

The development of property of other cooperative organisations (q. v.) proceeds parallel to that of collective-farm and cooperative property in this country.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU).

"The leading and guiding force of Soviet society and the nucleus of its political system, of all government and non-government organisations, is the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The CPSU exists for the people and serves the people" (Art. 6 of the Constitution of the USSR).

Founded at the turn of our century, in a brief historical period the Party has traversed a great heroic path. It led the triumphant Great October Socialist Revolution, established the first socialist state in the world and led the Soviet people to victory over fascism in the Great Patriotic War. Under its leadership the USSR has entered the stage of developed socialism. Today, the most important objective law of socialist 46 society, the law of the growth of the guiding role of the CPSU, increasingly reveals itself in practice, as reflected in the Constitution of the USSR.

The great Lenin was the founder and leader of the Communist Party. Drawing on the experience of the Russian and international workers' movement, Lenin creatively developed Marxism and applied it to the era of imperialism. He created a coherent theory of the Party and comprehensively elaborated and implemented its theoretical and organisational principles, its strategy and tactics, the principles of Party leadership and the norms of Party life. Under Lenin's leadership, the Party tempered in class battles, became the most mature and advanced organisation of the working class.

The ideological foundation of the Communist Party is Marxism-Leninism. Relying on its profound knowledge of the laws of social development, the Party worked out its long-term policy aimed at overthrowing the dominance of the exploiters and at building socialism and communism. This line was enshrined in three Party programmes, each corresponding to a different historical stage in the struggle of working people led by the CPSU. The first Party Programme, adopted in 1903 at the Second Party Congress was implemented as a result of the victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution and the establishment of the Soviet Republic. The second Party Programme, approved in 1919 by the F.ighth Party Congress was carried out as a result of the full and complete triumph of socialism in the USSR. Having adopted the third Party Programme at its 22nd Congress in 1961, the CPSU initiated a major effort in all spheres of building communism. The country entered the stage of developed socialism. In 1986, 'the 27th Congress of the CPSU approved the new edition of the Party Programme. This Programme is directed towards the systematic, all-round perfection of socialism, the further advance of Soviet society towards communism on the basis of the country's accelerated socio-economic development and towards world peace and social progress.

The CPSU is indeed the unbending core of the Soviet society, its living soul; it is a potent, healthy 47 and mature collective. As Soviet society develops the Communist Party grows and becomes stronger and more mature, as demonstrated by the growth and unity of its ranks and by their ideological and organisational firmness. By the end of 1985, there were over 19 million Communists in the CPSU. Moulding its social composition remains, as in the past, an important aim of the CPSU, and the direction of its activities in this field is determined by the class nature of the Party. With the elimination of the classes of exploiters in the country, and, subsequently, as Soviet society was becoming more homogeneous, the CPSU became a party of the whole people. Nonetheless, as in the past, it remains the party of the working class. In 1981--1985, the total number of the CPSU rose by 1.6 million. The Party has struck deep roots among the working class, peasants, and intelligentsia. There are 59 factory workers and 26 specialists engaged in different sectors of the national economy per every 100 new Party members. Young people represent about 80 per cent of them. On the whole, those working in the sphere of material production, which plays the decisive role in the effort to build communism, comprise the significantly predominant share of the Party membership. Its high standards and the exacting requirements towards the newly admitted members guarantee the strengthening of the Party's ranks.

The CPSU is structured on the basis of the territorial and production principle. Its higher and local bodies and primary organisations are united into a cohesive organism; they are indissolubly interrelated, working on the basis of the provisions contained in the Party Rules.

All internal activities of the CPSU, the forms of its organisation and work methods are subject to continuous development. Consistent implementation of Party Congress guidelines on Party development promotes the further advancement of inner party democracy, and a co-ordinated, active and purposeful efforts by all links of the Party. A prerequisite of the latter is the implementation of the principle of democratic centralism. Guided by this principle, the Party 48 promotes inner-party democracy, conducts its activities in a centralised manner as required, stimulates the activities of each of its members, subordinates their efforts to one common goal, and guarantees the unswerving observance of Party discipline.

The Party consistently applies the principle of electiveness and accountability to its leading bodies. The principle of collective leadership, which follows from the democratic nature of the Party itself, has been firmly established. Having joined voluntarily in an organisation with one, Marxist-- Leninist, ideology, united by a common goal, common endeavour and Party discipline, the Communists decide for themselves the issues of Party life and actively participate in the elaboration and implementation of Party policies. The Party Rules have enshrined the Leninist principle of collective leadership as the highest principle of Party life and a sine qua non of the vitality of Party organisations, proper education of the membership and stimulating the activity and initiative of Communists. Inner-party information activities, further development of criticism and self-criticism and the close interrelationship between the leading bodies and the party masses are the inalienable elements of the Party's democratic life. The CPSU Central Committee provides Communists with extensive and up-to-date information on all Party policy questions, while actively using the information from local Party organisations in its analyses of public opinion (q. v.) and in decision-making.

In accordance with the USSR Constitution, all Party organisations shall function within the framework of the Fundamental Law of the USSR. This provision means that the Party, its organisations and all Communists have no privileges of any kind, or advantages compared to other mass organisations or individual citizens. The CPSU implements its policy line through Party organisations which function in practically all work collectives, Soviet elective bodies and in other mass associations of the working people.

The scale and complexity of communist construction require a high level of political and organisational __PRINTERS_P_49_COMMENT__ 4-1192 49 direction by the Party. "The Communist Party, armed with Marxism-Leninism,'' says Art. 6 of' the USSR Constitution, "determines the general perspectives of the development of society and the course of the home and foreign policy of the USSR, directs the great constructive work of the Soviet people, and imparts a systematic and theoretically substantiated character to their struggle for the victory of communism.''

Party Congresses which lay down the general direction of Soviet society's progress are the highest expression of the CPSU's guiding role. Between Congresses Central Committee Plenums (Plenary Meetings) are held regularly to consider and adopt decisions on the most important issues of Party and state activities. Practically all current Party activities comprise the terms of reference of the Secretariat of the CPSU Central Committee. The Politbureau is the headquarters of the Party. It is there that the Party's collective wisdom is concentrated and Party policies, a reflection of the interests of the entire Soviet society and of all Communists and non-Party members, are worked out.

The Politbureau and the Secretariat of the Central Committee display constant concern for increasing the role and responsibilities of republican, territory, regional, area, city and district Party organisations. The local situation is carefully studied, reports by Party committees are considered and, on the basis of comprehensive and thorough discussion, conclusions relevant to the entire Party are reached.

The CPSU assigns the paramount role in communist construction to primary Party organisations. The CPSU Central Committee aims at making these bodies as active as possible, assigning importance to making fuller and better use of their right to control the activities of economic managers, firmly carrying out the Party line, and resolutely and firmly protecting stateinterests.

Economic guidance is the core of all Party activities. Acting in accordance with Lenin's instructions, the CPSU focuses its attention on personnel selection and verification of decision implementation. Specialists with a record of practical work with the masses, who 50 are well acquainted with the workers' demands and interests, are actively involved in Party work. With its system of Party schools and political education, the Party assists them in acquiring the necessary political knowledge and practical skills. By nominating highly skilled experts who are devoted to the Party and the people to all sectors of Party, government, managerial and other activities, the CPSU supervises these activities while raising the level of responsibility for the task entrusted to them. Efforts are currently aimed at strengthening control over the implementation of decisions, carrying it out systematically and promptly, simultaneously from above and from below.

Under developed socialism, the level of the Party's ideological work is enhanced, as creative involvement of the working people in communist construction is directly related to their consciousness and devotion to the ideas of scientific communism. The growing importance of ideological work in the Party is due also to the intensification of the class struggle in the international arena and more active propaganda by reactionary and anti-communist forces. The mid- 1980s have been marked by confrontation, unprecedented in the entire post-war period in its intensity and acuteness, of two diametrically opposed world outlooks and two political lines, those of socialism and imperialism. A struggle is being waged for the minds and hearts of many millions of people on this planet. The future of mankind hinges largely on the outcome of this ideological struggle. The 27th Congress of the CPSU outlined important tasks in ideological work and political education, based on the need for taking into account the new developments of contemporary life, making better use of the potential of Soviet propaganda, improving the content of ideological work and bringing its forms in line with current needs.

The growing role of the CPSU is also related to further development of socialist democracy. Establishing stronger links with the masses and promoting their greater involvement in communist construction, the CPSU increasingly expands the workers' participation in managing the affairs of state, of production, public 51 affairs and, in particular, in the organisation of nationwide accounting and control in various economic spheres.

The Communist Party firmly adheres to the tested Marxist-Leninist principles of proletarian internationalism, actively promotes the unity of the socialist community, of the international communist and workers' movement, as well as fraternal relations with Communists in all countries. Its policies, strategy and tactics correspond to the interests of this country, to those of the international communist and workers' movement and to the vital interests of all working masses. The foreign policy of the CPSU, active and rich in initiative, is based on the powerful economic potential and authority of the Soviet state and enjoys the support of all Soviet people. Its principal goal is halting the arms race, and primarily the nuclear arms race, reducing and finally eliminating the threat of nuclear war. The CPSU's foreign policy is aimed at safeguarding peace for the present and future generations and at establishing favourable external conditions for the building of communism in the USSR, strengthening world socialism, developing international communist and workers' movement and supporting the national liberation struggle of peoples.

The Party is able to play this guiding role by constantly focussing its attention on the elaboration of theoretical problems. On the basis of the experience of socialist and communist construction in the USSR and in other socialist countries, as well as that of the international communist and workers' movement, the CPSU creatively develops Marxist-Leninist theory, enriching it with new findings. A most important achievement in this field is the elaboration of the conception of developed socialism as a necessary, logical and extended stage in the establishment of the communist formation. It is a society where the economic foundation, social structure, and a political system conforming to socialist principles have been fully established, and where socialism is developing on a collectivist basis of its own. Relying on this conception, the CPSU has defined in specific and concrete terms the 52 means and time limits for implementing its programme goals and formulated its strategy and tactics over a long historical period.

By the same token the Party is resolutely opposed to revisionists of various kinds, and their attempts to distort the practice of the building of socialism and communism and to dilute the content of the revolutionary teaching.

United and cohesive, armed with ever-triumphant Marxist-Leninist theory, inseparably linked to the entire people, the CPSU is carrying out its mission as the guiding and directing force in Soviet society.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Communist Social Self-Government.

The supreme goal of the Soviet state is the building of a classless, communist society in which there will be social, communist self-government (the Preamble to the Constitution of the USSR).

Communist social self-government is a principle of social organisation under communism. The founders of Marxism-Leninism, condemning those who attempted to make detailed predictions concerning the future social system, confined themselves to general assumptions regarding communist social self-government, which followed from the laws of development of the new socio-economic formation as discovered by them. The assumptions included, first and foremost, the idea that in a classless society the state will wither away, to be replaced by some non-political system of government. Such a system would be based on voluntary performance by all of their responsibilities vis-a-vis society and on their active participation in the administration of public affairs. Its establishment will have overcome political professionalism and make managerial work just another variety of labour activity.

The experience of development of the political system of the Soviet society (q. v.) and that in other socialist countries has corroborated Lenin's prevision as to the emergence and accumulation of elements of communist social self-government already under socialism concurrently with the development and improvement of this new historical type of democracy. In 53 the course of the building of the new society, the content of socialist democracy is enriched as its historical limitations fade away and the forms of people's rule become diversified. This process is at all times linked to the development of the socialist state system which, in turn, undergoes qualitative changes. The most important of the latter is the development of the state of proletarian dictatorship into a state of the whole people. Contrary to the metaphysical notions which put the socialist state system in opposition to communist social self-government, the latter may be described as evolving from the former, as it inherits and adds new content to the entire positive experience of social organisation under developed socialism (q. v.). By dint of the fact that a stretch of history separates developed socialist society from the second phase of communism, the political system of developed socialism differs from the ideal, communist self-government, in more than one respect. The system, however, is functioning and developing; ever new forms and methods are found as regards the development of democracy, the expansion of economic rights and potentialities of the working man in production and in all his social and political activities. Deputies' commissions and people's control, permanent production conferences and other forms of workers' participation in management in the USSR, are all elements of genuine socialist self-- government by the people, which develops as the building of communism proceeds.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Complaint.

The USSR Constitution establishes (Art. 58) that citizens of the USSR have the right to lodge a complaint against the actions of officials, state and social bodies.

The principal normative act regulating the procedure of, and the time-limits for the examination of citizens' C.s is the Decree on the Procedure of Examination of Proposals, Requests and Complaints of Citizens passed by the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet on April 12, 1968. It does not cover cases where the C. is to be considered under the Code of Criminal Procedure or the Code of Civil Procedure of the Union 54 ot Soviet Socialist Republics and ot Union republics, the Statute on Settling Labour Disputes, the Statute on Inventions, Discoveries and Innovators' Proposals, and some other legislative acts.

The law obliges the officials concerned to thoroughly examine the essence ot the C.; when the situation requires it, apply tor necessary documents; send specialists to the scene to promptly verify the facts; uncover and remove the causes ot actions prejudicial to the rights and interests of citi/ens.

C.s are directed by citi/ens to the body or official to whom the state body, enterprise, institution or organisation against whom the C. is lodged is directly accountable, or to the Executive Committee of the local Soviet of People's Deputies (in eases when a C. is lodged against decisions of collective-farmers' meetings and other cooperative organisations which have no higher bodies, or of public bodies directed by local Soviets). If a complaint is directed to a body or official who has no jurisdiction over the matter, that body or official is obliged to redirect it to the proper quarters. It is strictly forbidden to send a C. for examination to the official against whom the complaint is lodged. Handing in a C. with slanderous intent is punishable by law in the USSR.

All C.s are to be reviewed within one month; C.s which do not require additional examination and verification arc to be dealt with promptly, in any case, not later than within 15 days after receipt of the C. by the body obliged to settle the issue. Reduced time-limits are established for the examination of C.s lodged by servicemen and members of their families. The decision reached on the C. must be substantiated. The cit\7.cn who has lodged the C. is informed of the decision, and if the C. is dismissed, about the grounds for this action. The body which has passed the decision is obliged to take steps to ensure its implementation. A citi/.en who is not satistied with the decision has a right to appeal to a higher body.

Art. 58 of the USSR Constitution states that " actions by officials that contravene the law or exceed their powers, and infringe the rights of citizens, may be 55 appealed against in a court in the manner prescribed by law.''

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Constitution of an Autonomous Republic.

An Autonomous Republic has its own Constitution conforming to the Constitutions of the USSR and the Union Republic concerned, with the specific features of the Autonomous Republic being taken into account (Art. 82 of the Constitution of the USSR).

The C.s of the A.R.s now in effect were adopted in May 1978, shortly after the coming into force of the Constitutions of the Union Republics. They were elaborated and discussed on a broad democratic basis, with important contributions made by the working people of the Autonomous Republics during the discussion of their draft Constitutions.

The C. of an A.R. is the fundamental law of that Republic being a Soviet socialist state. The adoption of its Constitution and the amendment thereof are the prerogative of the Autonomous republic itself, as these powers have been entrusted exclusively to the Supreme Soviet of the Autonomous Republic. With the adoption of the Constitution of the USSR in 1977 and of the Constitutions of the Union and Autonomous Republics following it, the formerly applicable provision, under which the constitutions of the Autonomous Republics were to be approved by the Union Republics through their Supreme Soviets, ceased to be effective. This development allows the C.s of the A.R.s to reflect with greater flexibility and creativity the provisions of the Constitutions of the USSR and that of the respective Union republic with due account of the specific features of individual Autonomous republics.

The C.s of the A.R.s register their being a constituent part of Union republics, define the autonomous status of these republics and the scope of their competence. Outside the scope of the powers of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the corresponding Union republic, the Autonomous republic settles the issues within its terms of reference independently. Besides defining the social system and policies of an 56 Autonomous republic, and the rights, freedoms and duties of its citizens, its Constitution deals exhaustively with its national-state and administrative-territorial structure, and the membership, powers and working procedure of the Supreme Soviet and Council of Ministers of the Autonomous Republic, as well as those of the local Soviets of People's Deputies and their executive committees, the economic and social development plan and the budget of the Autonomous republic.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918.

The RSFSR Constitution was the first constitution of a socialist type in the world, based on entirely different principles from those of bourgeois constitutions. It was created by the revolutionary proletariat and the working peasants under the leadership of the Bolshevik Party headed by Lenin (Lenin chaired the commission which elaborated, finalised and supplemented a number of articles of the draft Constitution, including those on the All-Russia Central Executive Committee, the Council of People's Commissars, the procedure of electing and recalling Deputies, the fundamental rights and duties of citizens, the guarantees of those rights, and so on). The RSFSR Constitution of 1918 gave legislative recognition to the gains of the Great October Revolution and the basic social transformations carried out by Soviet government.

The constitutional principles were formulated in aie very first decrees of Soviet power, in particular, in those on peace, on land, on an eight-hour working day, on social insurance and on workers' control, as well as in certain other legislative acts of the Land of Soviets. The Declaration of Rights of the Working and Exploited People was of special importance in this respect. On Lenin's proposal, this document was included in the 1918 Constitution of the RSFSR, which was unanimously endorsed by the Fifth All-Russia Congress of Soviets on July 10, 1918, and came into force as from July 19.

The RSFSR Constitution of 1918 wrote into law the proletarian dictatorship as the exercise of all power by the working people, led by the working class, and recognised the Soviets as the basis of state 57 organisation. Active involvement of broad working masses in government was another basic feature of the first Soviet Constitution. It entrenched in law the transfer of the essential means of production to public ownership and the sovereignty of the working people in all spheres of social fife. The RSFSR Constitution of 1918 guaranteed democratic rights and freedoms for the working people and ensured the equality of rights to citizens irrespective of their race or ethnic origins. It defined the fundamentals of the national and statestructure of the country. According to Art. 2 of the RSFSR Constitution of 1918, "The Russian Soviet Republic is founded on the basis of free alliance of free nations as a federation of Soviet national republics.'

The RSFSR Constitution of 1918 made the AllRussia Congress of Workers', Soldiers', Peasants' and Cossacks' Deputies, comprising representatives of city Soviets and gubernia Congresses of Soviets, the highest body of state authority in the country. The All-Russia Central Executive Committee, elected by the Congress and accountable to it, was made the executive body. Regional, gubernia, district, and volost Congresses of Soviets, and in between Congresses, [Executive Committees of the Soviets, elected by the Congresses and accountable to them, were made the local bodies of state authority. Rural and city Soviets were established in villages and cities.

The representation to the All-Russia Congress of Soviets was established as one delegate from a constituency of 25,000 in cities and one delegate from a constituency of 125,000 from the gubernia Congresses of Soviets.

The RSFSR Constitution of 1918 established the Soviets on the basis of one solid principle, giving the working people both, the right to vote and the right to be elected, while depriving the exploiting elements of those rights. During the first years of Soviet government, the constitutional system of the Soviet state was characterised by a disproportionate representation of various social groups, with the share of representatives of factory workers in the Soviets and at the Congresses of Soviets being higher than that of the peasants.

58

``The world has never known such a constitution as ours,'' Lenin said of the RSFSR Constitution of 1918. "It embodies the workers' experience of struggle and organisation against the exploiters both at home and abroad.'' It also formulated some long-term tasks faced by the Soviet state, such as, for example, the goal of "providing the workers and the poor peasants with complete, harmonious and free education" (Art. 17).

The Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918 guaranteed certain rights to the working people while establishing a number of responsibilities for the citizens of the republic. Art. 19 of the RSFSR Constitution of 1918 said that the honourable right to take up arms to defend the Revolution was given only to working people; in other words, the non-working and exploiter elements were deprived of that right. At the same time, Art. 18 proclaimed the universal duty of citizens to work.

The RSFSR Constitution of 1918 became a model for the constitutions of the other Soviet republics. The ideas of equality of rights, friendship and fraternal mutual assistance of peoples which it contained, contributed to the establishment and development of the state union of the Soviet republics and to the consolidation of Soviet power centrally and locally.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Constitution of the USSR of 1924.

The USSR Constitution of 1924 reflected, on the highest legislative level, the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, an integral, multinational state.

The plan for the formation of such a state was put forward by Lenin, who stressed the importance of, and the need for, a voluntary union of equal republics. Soviet power was the natural foundation for such a union. All Soviet republics had economic and political systems of the same type; the basic goals and aims of the republics fully coincided. Their desire for unity was also based on their economic and cultural interrelationships, established historically, and on the distribution of the country's productive forces. In addition, individually the republics would be hard pressed to preserve their national independence and revolutionary gains in a hostile capitalist environment.

59

In accordance with the proposals put forward by the working people of all the Soviet republics existing at the time, i.e., the Russian Federation, the Ukraine, Byelorussia and Transcaucasia, the First All-Union Congress of Soviets, on December 30, 1922, adopted a decision on the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The decision opened up vast opportunities for the social, economic and cultural development of the country, promoting its accelerated advancement towards socialism.

The First Ail-Union Congress of Soviets approved two documents of paramount importance: the Declaration on the Formation of the USSR and the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR. The Congress also resolved to devise a new draft all-Union Constitution, establishing a Constitutional Commission for the purpose. The Congress stressed the need for taking into account in the drafting the opinions and proposals of the Union republics. Lenin's directives concerning the establishment of a carefully weighed system of measures and effective guarantees of sovereign rights of all the republics to be included in the USSR were studied with all due attention.

On January 31, 1924, the Second Congress of Soviets of the USSR approved the Constitution of the USSR, which reflected the supreme will of all peoples in the country to build socialism and communism. The Constitution contained, first and foremost, provisions governing the structure of the federative state and the relations between the Union and the constituent republics. The C. of the USSR of 1924 also defined the fundamentals of the structure and activities of the union bodies of state authority and administration.

The Constitution contained two sections, the Declaration on the Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Treaty on the Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The Declaration laid down the basic features of the nationalities policy of Soviet government and listed the reasons for the unification of the Soviet republics in a Union state. Also recorded were the basic principles of the state union, such as voluntary accession, equality of rights, 60 and the retention by each republic of the right to freely secede from the Union.

Among the prerogatives of the USSR, as represented by its higher bodies, were foreign relations and foreign trade; the declaration of war and peace; the organisation and direction of the armed forces; the approval of the principles and overall plan of the economic development of the USSR; the direction of transport and communications; the approval of the consolidated state budget of the USSR and the uniform monetary and credit system; the. establishment of the general principles of land use and land management; the establishment of the general principles of the judiciary and court procedure, of civil and criminal legislation, and of labour legislation; the establishment of the general principles of public education and public health, etc. Approving and amending the basic principles of the Constitution was made the exclusive prerogative of Congresses of Soviets of the USSR.

The sovereignty of the Union republics was restricted only within the limits specified in the Constitution, and only on matters made the competence of the Union. According to Art. 3, "Outside these limits, each Union republic exercises its state authority independently, with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics protecting the sovereign rights of the Union republics.'' The territory of a Union republic could not be altered other than with its agreement; the citizens of a Union republic were simultaneously granted the citizenship of the USSR.

The Congress of Soviets of the USSR was the highest body of state authority of the USSR; in between its sessions, the function was performed by the Central Executive Committee of the USSR. It consisted of the Soviet of the Union, the membership of which was elected in proportion to the population of the republics, and the Soviet of Nationalities, comprising representatives from the Union and Autonomous republics (five representatives from each of the republics) and Autonomous regions (one from each). The number of Chairmen of the Central Executive Committee was the same as that of the union 61 republics. The Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, elected at a joint meeting of the Chambers of the Central Executive Committee, was the highest legislative and executive organ of authority in between the sessions of the Central Executive Committee.

The Council of People's Commissars, an executive and administrative body which also had legislative functions (it could promulgate decrees and decisions within its sphere of competence), formed by the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, was the Government of the USSR. People's Commissariats were the bodies of branch administration in the Union and the republics. Five of them, Foreign Affairs, Army and Navy Affairs, Foreign Trade, Railways, Post and Telegraph were all-Union, while five others were amalgamated, exercising their authority through the People's Commissariates of the republics, rather than directly.

It was established that all the Union republics had their own Constitutions which they adopted independently and which were not subject to approval by the Union. The Constitutions of the republics, however, should not conflict with the all-Union Constitution. As per Art. 5 of the Constitution, in connection with the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the Union republics adopted new Constitutions or amended those in effect.

The C. of the USSR of 1924 contained no special sections on the principles of the social structure or the state system, on the goals and tasks of the Soviet state, on the principles of the structure and activities of the Soviets, or on the status of citizens. All these aspects were dealt with in detail in the Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1925 and in the Constitutions of the Union republics promulgated between 1924 and 1925.

The latter Constitutions were modelled along the lines of the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918 (q. v.).

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Constitution of the USSR of 1936.

The Constitution of the USSR of 1936 reflected the completion of a stage during which the foundations of socialism in the USSR had been built; a powerful socialist industry had 62 been created; the collectivisation of agriculture had been carried out, and socialist property struck root as the economic foundation of the entire society.

The Seventh Congress of Soviets of the USSR (1935) resolved that some changes had to be introduced into the Constitution then in effect, to reflect the changes which had taken place in the country. The drafting of the new Constitution was entrusted to a Constitutional Commission, established by the Central Executive Committee of the USSR. On June 12, 1936, after the Commission had finalised its draft, it was published for nationwide discussion, in which over 50 per cent of the country's adult population participated and about two million additions and amendments were proposed to the draft.

The C. of the USSR of 1936 became known as the Fundamental Law of triumphant socialism. Its articles reflected the radical transformations which had taken place in the class structure of the population, in the economy and all social life.

The C. of the USSR of 1936 developed the principles originally contained in the first Soviet Constitutions. It noticeably expanded the content of the constitutional text, which now contained 13 chapters and 146 articles. The new chapters were Ch. I, The Social Structure- Ch. VIII, Local Bodies of State Authority; Ch. IX, The Court and the Procurator's Office; Ch. X, The Basic Rights and Duties of Citizens; Ch. XI, The Electoral System. The questions of state structure were dealt with in much greater detail (Ch. II).

The C. of the USSR of 1936 contained a provision to the effect that the USSR was a socialist state of workers and peasants, and developed further the principle that all power in the country was vested in the working people. The Constitution proceeded from the fact that the classes of exploiters had completely disappeared in the USSR. According to Art. 3, "All power in the USSR is vested in the urban and rural workers as represented by the Soviets of Working People's Deputies''. While fixing in legislation the historical fact of establishment of socialism not just in the political but also in the economic field, the USSR 63 Constitution of 1936 stipulated that socialist ownership of the instruments and means of production was the economic foundation of the USSR. The Constitution proclaimed the socialist distribution principle of "From each according to his ability, to each according to his work''.

The C. of the USSR of 1936 reflected the development of the Soviet multinational state. Directly included in the Union, alongside with the RSFSR, the Ukraine and Byelorussia, were Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, previously included in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics through the Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Formerly Autonomous republics, Kazakhstan and Kirghizia became Union republics. Even before that, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenia had joined the USSR as Union republics. The Constitution of the USSR of 1936 recorded the principles of Soviet socialist federalism, i.e., the voluntary association of equal Soviet Union republics and the free development of Soviet socialist nations. The Constitution clearly listed the questions which were made the prerogative of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, stipulating at the same time that the sovereignty of the Union republics was only restricted by those limits. Every Union republic retained the right to secede from the USSR.

The C. of the USSR of 1936 became the basis for restructuring the system of state bodies of authority and administration. Congresses of Soviets, elected on the basis of open and multistage elections which offered some advantages to the working class, were replaced by a system of Soviets of Working People's Deputies. Elections to the Soviets became universal, equal and direct, with secret balloting. All citizens were granted equal suffrage. The Constitution clearly reflected the transformations that had taken place in the country: the classes of exploiters had been eliminated and radical changes had taken place within the working class, the peasantry and the intelligentsia.

An important role was played by the constitutional provision concerning the supremacy of the Soviets of Working People's Deputies, the representative bodies 64 of state authority. Only the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Supreme Soviets of the Union and Autonomous Republics, the higher representative bodies, were granted the right of law-making. Regional, territory, city, district and rural Soviets became the local bodies of state authority. The Constitution stipulated that bodies of state administration, from the Government of the USSR down to the executive committees of rural Soviets were formed by the corresponding Soviets and were controlled by and accountable to the latter.

The C. of the USSR of 1936 was the first legislative embodiment of the role of the Communist Party in the political system of the Soviet society. According to Art. 126, "the Party is the guiding core of all working people's organisations, both government and nongovernment'', i.e., the Communist Party is the guiding and directing force of the Soviet society.

The citizens of the USSR were granted broad social and economic rights, such as the right to work, the right to maintenance in old age, in sickness or disability, the right to education, to rest and leisure, etc. The Constitution of 1936 also expanded the guarantees of the use by citizens of their rights and freedoms.

The Constitution was adopted by the Extraordinary Eighth Congress of Soviets of the USSR on December 5, 1936. Between January and March, 1937, the constitutional legislation in all the Union and Autonomous republics was updated. The 1936 Constitution legislatively registered the triumph of socialist social relations in the USSR, bringing the entire system of the bodies of power and administration and the electoral procedure in line with the results of this development.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Constitution of the USSR of 1977.

The Constitution of the USSR of 1977 is the fundamental law of the socialist state of the whole people, summing up the results of the 60 years of the Soviet society's development.

The need for the adoption of a new Constitution was due to the profound changes which had taken place in the country over the four decades during which the Constitution of the USSR of 1936 (q. v.) had been 65 in effect. A developed, mature socialist society has been built in the USSR. Its economy has changed due to the establishment of socialist property and the effective functioning of a unified powerful economic mechanism. Its social make-up has also altered, with the working class now comprising two-thirds of the population, with changes in the peasants, whose psychology has evolved on a socialist basis, and in the intelligentsia, which has become genuinely socialist and firmly rooted in the people. The equality of nations has become an actual, not merely juridical, fact. The formerly economically and culturally backward republics have attained a high level of development. The international situation of the country has also radically changed, with the USSR no longer the only socialist country in the world after the formation of a powerful socialist community.

The draft of the new Constitution was elaborated in accordance with clear-cut and specific CPSU guidelines. The draft was the result of many years of intensive work by a large body of people. The Constitutional Commission comprised experienced Party and state figures, prominent scholars, people from all walks of life in Soviet society. The preparations were directed by the CPSU Central Committee.

The C. of the USSR of 1977 was based on the conception of developed socialism, advanced by the Party. The Constitution notes that at the stage of developed socialism, when socialism is developing on its own foundations, the creative forces of the new system and the advantages of the socialist way of life are becoming increasingly evident, and the working people are enjoying even more widely the fruits of their great revolutionary gains.

The new Constitution was elaborated in such a manner as to guarantee the continuity of the ideas and principles contained in the previous Soviet Constitutions. The 1977 Constitution reflects the basic principles of state and all social life, such as the fact that all power is vested in the working people; the solid unity of all working people led by the working class; the leading role of the CPSU in the society and its 66 political system; the predominance of public ownership of the means ot production and the management of the economy on the basis of state plans; the supremacy of the Soviets within the mechanism of state and the exercise of state authority through the Soviets, which are the political foundation of the USSR; the accountability of all other state bodies to, and their control by, the Soviets; the development of the Soviet state on the basis of democratic centralism (q. v.) and socialist legality; the broad and guaranteed rights and freedoms of Soviet citi/.ens and the interrelationship of these rights with their duties and responsibilities-, socialist internationalism; the creation and development of the country's national-state system on the basis of socialist autonomy and federalism.

The nationwide discussion of the draft Constitution took almost four months, with about one and a half million meetings held at enterprises, collective farms, army units and places of residence to consider the draft.

The 1977 Constitution has extended the scope of the matters it regulates. Chapter 1 is concerned not only with the questions of state but also with those pertaining to the entire political system; in particular, it defines the role of the CPSU, social organisations and work collectives within the system. Chapter 2 spells out the principles underlying the economic system. The 1977 Constitution contains a new chapter on social development and culture, not found in any of the previous Constitutions. More attention than previously has been given in the text of the Constitution to the regulation of various aspects of social development. Their regulation by the Constitution promotes unity, purposefulness and interrelationship in the development of all the components of the social machinery. It embraces the new role of science and technology, the protection of the environment and the development of education and the arts.

The 1977 Constitution contains 174 Articles, 28 more than the Constitution of 1936. The increase is due to the fact that the Fundamental Law now deals with an expanded range of questions. At the same 67 time, not included in the Constitution are provisions which often change in social life, such as the administrative-territorial structure or the list of ministries and departments, etc. The structure of the 1977 Constitution is different from those of the previous Soviet Constitutions in that it has a preamble and a number of new chapters, and the text is now divided not only into chapters but also into sections (there are nine sections in the Constitution, comprising 21 chapters).

The Preamble to the Constitution reviews the attainments by the Soviet people after the 1917 socialist revolution in the country, briefly describes the essence of developed socialist society and proclaims the supreme goal of the Soviet state, the building of a classless, communist society.

As distinct from the 1936 Constitution, the provisions on the rights, freedoms and duties of Soviet citizens in the 1977 Constitution precede those establishing the fundamentals of state organisation. This sequence is intended to emphasise that society is primarily concerned about the welfare of its members, while the entire state system is so structured and is functioning in such a manner, as to guarantee the all-round development of the individual and the satisfaction of his growing requirements.

Programmatic provisions have also been included in the text of the 1977 Constitution. These reflect the basic guidelines for the development of the political system, of the economy, culture and all aspects of the building of communism. The Constitution thus provides long-term guidance for all social development.

Within the Soviet legislative system, the Constitution of the USSR is the highest juridical instrument, i.e., all other instruments, including laws, government decisions, ministerial orders, etc., must be promulgated only on the basis of, and in accordance with, the Constitution. None of them can be at variance with the Constitution. Consistent and strict adherence to the Constitution is a basic duty of all state institutions, social organisations, of officials and individual citizens. The Constitution may be amended by a 68 decision of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, adopted by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the total number of Deputies in each of its Chambers.

The adoption of the 1977 Constitution was followed in this country by a major effort to implement its provisions. Activities are under way to improve the structure and functioning of state bodies and social organisations and to update the current legislation; the level of legal culture of the population is on the rise.

The democratic nature of the 1977 Constitution can be most clearly seen against the background of the increasingly acute crisis of the constitutional system of the capitalist countries. Some of the latest constitutions in those countries do contain a number of social and economic provisions which expand the constitutional status of the individual. Yet the current situation once again confirms the validity of Lenin's assertion that in bourgeois constitutions many articles are a fiction, particularly those which solemnly proclaim the people's rights and their participation in government. The constitutional provisions on the equality of rights, etc., are not only ignored, they are rejected out of hand by the state machinery and the judiciary in the capitalist countries.

The 1977 Constitution reflects the rich experience of the development of the Soviet state and the collective experience of the world socialist community; with maximum fullness, versatility and clarity, it brings out the common features of constitutions of the socialist type. Its provisions testify that, under socialism, the Constitution is the Fundamental Law of the state, its most important normative instrument, an instrument of the highest juridical force, the foundation for all other law-making. At the same time it is an important political document that sets down the fundamental elements of the country's domestic and foreign policy, revealing its class nature and economic and social foundations. The Constitution reflects not only the achievements of the country and its people but also the dynamics of socialist development. The 1977 Constitution is a theoretical document of major importance, reflecting the latest 69 achievements in Marxist-Leninist thinking and all the rich experience of the CPSU in the building of socialism and communism. It is a contribution to the theory and international practice of building socialism, to which it contributes the experience of the setting up of the first socialist state of the whole people in the world; it is a document which enshrines the norms and traditions of the socialist way of life and the most advanced ideas of social progress. The 1977 Constitution plays a prime role in the ideological life of society and in moulding the man for the communist future. It has ushered in a higher stage in the development of socialist democracy. The participation of Soviet people in administering social affairs and in government is becoming increasingly active.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Constitution of a Union Republic.

"A Union Republic shall have its own Constitution conforming to the Constitution of the USSR with the specific features of the Republic being taken into account" (Art. 76 of the Constitution of the USSR).

Adopting the C. of a U.R. and amending it is the prerogative of the Union republic. These powers have been granted exclusively to the Supreme Soviet of the Union Republic.

The C.s of the U.R.s (i.e., their fundamental laws) reflect their rich experience of state building and characterise a new stage in the development of the brotherhood of Soviet nations. In all the Union republics, new constitutions were elaborated and adopted following the entry into force of the USSR Constitution of 1977. This development was caused by the radical transformations which had taken place in all the spheres of social life in the Union republics. By the same token, the continuity of the provisions of the new Constitutions with the previously effective ones was preserved, which is their important feature. Like the draft Constitution of the USSR, draft C.s of the U.R.s were elaborated by Constitutional Commissions and subsequently proposed for public discussion in the republics. With the results of the discussion taken into account, the drafts were considered and approved at sessions of the Supreme 70 Soviets of the Union republics between April and May 1978.

The structure and content of the C.s of the U.R.s meet the requirements of Art. 76 of the USSR Constitution concerning their conformity to the Fundamental Law of the USSR, as the uniformity of asocial, economic and political system makes the basic provisions of the C.s of the U.R.s identical to those in the Constitution of the USSR. At the same time, the provision in the Constitution of the USSR concerning the reflection, in the C.s of the U.R.s, of the specific features of the republics has also been implemented. The C.s of the U.R.s contain a number of detailed articles on questions within the terms of reference of the individual republics. Some provisions have been developed further, to reflect the specific features of, and the conditions in, the individual republics. The reflection of the specific features of the Union republics in their Constitutions makes dealing with matters within the terms of reference of the individual republics more specific, and the reflection of their specific development conditions more complete. The texts of the Constitutions of the Union republics contain a preamble and are divided into sections and chapters consisting of articles. Compared to the Preamble of the Constitution of the USSR, the preambles in the Constitutions of the Union republics are more brief, and the provisions on foreign policy and defence of the Motherland, dealt with in separate Chapters of the Fundamental Law of the USSR, 'are combined in one Chapter. The articles on the plan and budget of the republic have been included in a separate section so as to draw greater attention of all state bodies of the republic to planning and financial activities, better planning discipline and thrifty use of state funds. In some republics, due to the inclusion of specific constitutional regulations, the total number of the articles differs from that in the Constitutions of others.

The C.s of the U.R.s contain the basic principles governing their accession to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. It is stated that for the purposes of successfully building communism, strengthening 71 the economic and political unity and guaranteeing the security of the country, the Union republics, as a result of free self-determination of the nations and on the basis of voluntary association and equality, have united in the USSR, a single federal multinational state. The state unity of the Soviet people underlies the harmony of the basic provisions of the Constitution of the USSR vis-a-vis those of the Union and Autonomous republics.

The preambles to the C.s of the U.R.s contain a brief description of the essence of developed socialism and of the record of the republics' achievements, as well as of the specific features of socialist construction in the individual republics. The preamble to the C. of a U.R. would also stress that the people of the republic see themselves as an integral part of the entire Soviet people and that the Constitution is adopted in accordance with the Constitution of the USSR.

In the C. of a U.R., some sections and articles which essentially repeat the provisions of the Constitution of the USSR would be formulated in such a manner as to reflect the fact that this is the Fundamental Law of the Union republic. In accordance with these provisions, state and social organisations and officials would be obligated to guarantee the observance of both the Constitution of the USSR and the C. of the U.R. concerned, and both state and republican laws. The Union republic's economy is seen as an element of an integral economic complex embracing all the components of social production, distribution and exchange throughout the territory of the USSR. Since the country's defence capability and the defence of the Motherland are exclusive prerogatives of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, all the C.s of the U.R.s reproduce the relevant provisions of the Constitution of the USSR, while stipulating that the Union republics participate in the provision of the security and defence capability of the country, and supply the Armed Forces of the USSR with everything necessary for that purpose. In its foreign policy, each republic is guided by the aims, principles and tasks established by the Constitution of the USSR.

72

The section "The State and the Individual" contains the definition of citizenship of the republic and highlights the equality of rights of citizens of the other Union republics with those of the citizens of the particular republic. The sections on the national-state structure contain provisions to the effect that the republics shall guarantee the USSR, through its highest bodies of state authority and administration, the rights defined in Art. 73 of the Constitution of the USSR. Outside the limits stipulated by that Article, every Union republic shall exercise independent state authority on its territory. Moreover, compared to the Constitutions of the republics previously in effect, the newly adopted Constitutions envisage certain new, broader powers for the bodies of authority and administration of the Union republics. The specific features of their national-state structures are determined by the existence of autonomous formations or the absence thereof, and by the specific features of the administrative-- territorial structures of the Union republics.

Besides reproducing the articles of the section " Soviets of People's Deputies and Electoral Procedure" from the Constitution of the USSR, the C.s of the U.R.s contain numerous provisions on the organisation and activities of their Supreme Soviets. For example, the new C.s of the U.R.s have fixed for the first time a permanent number of Deputies to the Supreme Soviets of the Union republics, while the Autonomous republics have been granted the right to initiate legislation in those bodies, which has expanded the potential for the involvement of the Autonomous republics in the affairs of the respective Union republic. Articles on the activities of local Soviets of People's Deputies, and their executive committees, have also been supplemented with important norms.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Constitutions of Socialist Countries Other than the USSR.

Like Soviet Constitutions these belong to one and the same type. Their development goes through the basic stages or the social transformations.

In a number of countries where the revolutions were initially anti-imperialist (and often anti-feudal) and 73 involved all democratic forces, the first Constitutions and legislative acts of constitutional importance reflected the revolutions' most important gains and the process of their development into socialist revolutions. Some examples are the Constitutions of the People's Republic of Mongolia (1924), Democratic Republic of Vietnam (1964) and Cuba (1959), the Law on the State System of Hungary (1946) and the Constitutional Law on the Structure and Terms of Reference of the Higher Bodies of the Republic of Poland (1947).

With the development of the anti-imperialist and democratic revolutions into socialist ones (in Bulgaria and Yugoslavia the revolutions were socialist in nature from the outset), new Constitutions were adopted in Yugoslavia (1946), Bulgaria (1947), Hungary (1949), Czechoslovakia (1948), the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (1948), the GDR (1949), Poland (1952) and Mongolia (1940). The Constitutions recorded the democratic foundations of government under proletarian dictatorships, the nationalisation and the agrarian reform, and broad rights and freedoms of citizens. Yet, some of their provisions reflected the fact that the socialist restructuring of their societies was just beginning. They registered the existence of a multistructural economy, the old structure of state bodies, etc.

At present, the Constitutions which were elaborated and adopted since the building of socialism had been essentially completed, are in effect in most socialist countries. The 1960s and 1970s were a period of intensive constitutional renovation in these countries. Over these years, new Constitutions were adopted in Czechoslovakia and Mongolia (1960), Romania (1965), the GDR (1968), Bulgaria (1971), the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (1972) and Cuba (1976). Substantial amendments were introduced in the Constitution of Hungary, the new edition of which, adopted in 1972, in many respects differs from the preceding one. Important amendments and additions were made in the Constitution of Poland.

The constitutional reforms in the fraternal socialist countries were a reflection of more than the current 74 state of social and economic transformations, forms and methods of administering economic, political and cultural affairs, international factors, etc. The new Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (1980), for example, reflects the reunification of the North and the South of the country and the achievements of the people of Vietnam in their effort to build socialism. In Czechoslovakia, in 1968--1970 several constitutional laws were adopted to fix the transition from a unitary to a federal system of state organisation. The socialist development of the GDR also called for the introduction of some new elements to the Constitution in 1974. For instance, changes were introduced to reflect the full and irreversible establishment of socialism in the country, and the transformation of small private and semi-public enterprises into socialist property.

The new Constitution of Cuba (1976) embodied the economic, political and ideological transformations characteristic of the stage of large-scale building of socialism; it has also institutionalised the current structure of the state organisation and the whole political system.

As the experience of socialist countries demonstrates, their Constitutions register the basic principles of the state and social systems characteristic of socialism. These principles are similar to those which underlie the Soviet Constitutions.

Full powers of the working people. This provision is basic to the Constitutions of the fraternal socialist countries. According to the Constitution of the GDR, "the working people's sovereignty, exercised on the basis of democratic centralism, is a guiding principle of the state system" (Art. 47). The countries which have embarked on the path of building developed socialist society have initiated the process of evolution of the state of proletarian dictatorship into a state of the whole people, where the working class remains its chief force and where the leading and guiding role is played by its vanguard, the Marxist-Leninist party.

The Constitutions are based on the concept that development of a socialist system is closely linked to the 75 expansion and development of genuine government by the people. Elective representative bodies, such as the People's Assembly and People's Councils in Bulgaria, the State Assembly and Councils in Hungary, the People's Chamber and local people's representative bodies in the GDR, etc., are the political foundation of the entire state machinery. These are the bodies through which the working people exercise their power. Joint government and non-government bodies are also developing, e.g., in Bulgaria. Mass organisations and work collectives are expanding their participation in the management of state and social affairs. Acting in close cooperation with state bodies are the Revolution Defence Committees in Cuba, and so on.

The leading and guiding role of the Marxist-Leninist party. This provision, characteristic of all the socialist countries, has become an integral feature of most of the Constitutions in force in the fraternal socialist countries. "The Communist Party of Cuba, the organised Marxist-Leninist vanguard of the working class, is the supreme guiding force of the society and the state, organising and directing common efforts towards the attainment of the lofty goals of building socialism and advancement towards communist society" (Art. 5 of the Constitution of the Republic of Cuba). Similar provisions are contained in Art. 3 (para. 1) of the Constitution of Poland (the 1976 version), Art. 4 of the 1980 Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, etc. The experience of all the socialist countries demonstrates the validity of the conclusion, reached by scientific communism that the growing role of Marxist-Leninist parties progressively increases under socialism.

Predominance of socialist public property. The Constitutions of the socialist countries establish the foundations of their economic systems. In the countries where developed socialism is being built, undivided predominance of socialist production relations is reflected in their Constitutions. The Constitutions of Cuba and Vietnam, while noting the existence of the multistructural economy there, stress the leading role and predominance of the socialist economic system.

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Guaranteed all-round and free development of the individual. The Constitutions of the fraternal socialist countries reflect the expanded rights and freedoms of their citizens, the continues enrichment of the content of such rights and freedoms and the strengthening of their social, economic, political and legal guarantees. In addition to the provision on equal rights of citizens, special measures are, as a rule, included to guarantee the protection of mothers, children and youth, the retired and the disabled (see, for example, the Constitutions of Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, etc.). The constitutional status of the individual now includes new rights: those to health protection, housing, and so on. State bodies, mass organisations and officials now have increased responsibilities as regards adherence to legality in their relations with individual citizens. In the new Constitutions, the rights and freedoms of citizens are more harmoniously combined with their duties and responsibilities.

Socialist internationalism. The development of the socialist Constitutions reflects greater unity of the USSR and other fraternal socialist countries, the strengthening of their cooperation in all fields and mutual assistance. The Constitutions of Bulgaria (1971), Hungary (the 1972 version), the GDR (the 1974 version) and those of other states highlight their membership in the world socialist community. According to Art. 11 of its Constitution, "the Republic of Cuba is a part of the world socialist community, which is one of the fundamental premises of its independence and development in all fields.''

Socialist internationlism enables the fraternal socialist countries to play a greater role in the maintenance of peace and international security, and in broad international cooperation.

While the Constitutions have common basic principles, the numerous specific solutions which they contain differ. The constitutional legislation reflects the specific aspects of the class and national composition of their populations, the state of their economies, their historical traditions, and their particular 77 appreaches to the structuring of their state machinery.

The constitutional development of the fraternal socialist countries was influenced by the Soviet experience and drew actively on the latter. In turn, the latest constitutional legislation of the fraternal socialist countries was fully taken into account in the drafting of the Constitution of the USSR of 1977 (q. v.).

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Control Over the Measure of Labour and Consumption

---see Labour.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Cooperative House Building.

In Art. 44, the Constitution of the USSR envisages, as a guarantee of the right of citizens to housing (q. v.), state assistance to C.H.B. It began developing intensively in the USSR in the early 1960s. On June 1, 1962, the CPSU Central Committee and the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a decision on cooperative and individual house building which envisaged the setting up of house building cooperatives under the appropriate bodies of the executive committees of local Soviets, under enterprises, organisations and institutions. According to the decision, cooperative housing had to be built in conformity with standardised designs and within the time limits fixed for state-financed housing construction. The USSR Construction Bank was directed to extend 10 to 15-year construction credits to house building cooperatives of up to 60 per cent of the estimated construction costs, repayable by equal shares annually. The cash funds for the housing construction are contributed by the members of house building cooperatives. Admission to these cooperatives, their rights and duties are regulated by relevant legislation and nouse building cooperative rules, approved by the Councils of Ministers of the Union republics. The procedure of occupancy is determined in accordance with the decision on the further development of cooperative housing construction, adopted by the USSR Council of Ministers on November 19, 1964.

At present, the volume of cooperative housing construction is growing at a significant rate as the financial and other material assistance from the state increases. 78 Cooperative housing construction is gaining momentum especially in rural areas. Plans for 1986 through 1990 envisage an increased role of cooperative housing construction in the further improvement of the working people's housing conditions, and the provision of assistance to the working people in the construction of cooperative housing and in individual housing construction (q. v.) from the incentive funds of production associations and enterprises.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Cooperative Organisations.

Cooperatives, and other social organisations participate, in accordance with the purposes spelled out in their rules, in managing state and public affairs, and in deciding political, economic, and social and cultural matters (Art. 7 of the Constitution of the USSR). C.O. are mass social organisations established by workers for the purpose of joint production activity (production cooperation) or for organising purchases or production of consumer goods with their subsequent sale to their members or the consumer market (consumer cooperative societies). The Constitution of the USSR (Art. 12) also stipulates that the property of collective farms and other cooperative organisations, and of their associations, comprises the means of production and other assets which they require for the purposes specified in their rules.

The land hefd by collective farms shall be provided to them for their free use in perpetuity.

The state shall promote development of collectivefarm-and-cooperative property and its approximation to state property.

The first C.O. in this country, such as workers' consumer cooperatives, date back to the period before the 1917 Revolution. Lenin profoundly substantiated the socio-economic nature of workers' cooperative societies under capitalism, pointing to their importance as a form of the workers' movement and a school for teaching the workers economic management in socialist society.

After the victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution, the Communist Party set about to radically restructure the cooperation which had existed under 79 the bourgeois system and transform it into a form of the socialist economy. Various kinds of C.O. existed at different stages of socialist development. At present, collective farms, consumer cooperatives and house building cooperatives are the main forms of C.O. in the USSR, which also include fishing and hunting cooperative societies.

Lenin's cooperative plan, the basic provisions of which were contained in his article "On Co-Operation'', was of key importance to the development of all kinds of cooperation in the USSR. Lenin provided the Party with a theory on the essence and tasks of cooperation in the period of transition from capitalism to socialism, approaching cooperation as an integral part of the socialist economic system and as a system of social organisations which form part of the political organisation of the new society. Lenin's teaching on the laws of the transition of individual peasants to socialism through cooperation and on the need for massive material support to cooperatives by the socialist state became the foundation of the policy of the CPSU on the question of cooperation. The Fifteenth Congress of the Party (1927), which launched the collectivisation of agriculture, noted that cooperation, and primarily agricultural cooperation, is the best form of mass economic association of the peasants, of the development of their independent initiative, a form of their economic, cultural and political re-education and involvement in the mainstream of building socialism.

Consistent implementation of Lenin's cooperative plan has guaranteed the firm establishment of the collective-farm system (see Collective-Farm-and-- Cooperative Property).

Consumer cooperatives are another major type of cooperative organisation in the USSR.

Soviet consumer cooperatives have a membership of over 60 million collective farmers, state-farm workers and members of the rural intelligentsia. At Lenin's behests, the cooperatives have actively participated in the implementation of the Party's social and economic policies at all stages of development of the socialist state. Guided by the decision on further development and 80 improvement of the activities of consumer cooperatives, adopted by the CPSU Central Committee and the Council of" Ministers of the USSR in 1979, the Centrosoyus, which directs the activities of consumer cooperatives in the USSR, has elaborated and is carrying out three long-term integrated programmes aimed at streamlining all its activities, expanding its commodity resources, reducing manual labour and making better use of technology.

To accomplish the goal set by the Party of boosting the output of consumer goods, the Centrosoyus C.O. have produced over six billion roubles' worth of consumer goods and other articles at their own enterprises in 1981; they have organised the purchases of more than 60 different farm products and raw materials, and have delivered over three billion roubles worth of various raw materials to many industries.

The development of house building cooperatives (see Cooperative House Building) is also gaining momentum in the USSR.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Council of Defence of the USSR.

"The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR shall... form the Council of Defence of the USSR and confirm its composition...'' (Art. 121 of the Constitution of the USSR).

The Council of Defence of the USSR is a special body dealing with the most important current and longterm matters concerning the organisation of the country's defence and its Armed Forces and it coordinates the functioning of sectoral and inter-sectoral bodies of state administration to assure the capability of the Soviet state to repulse an armed attack against it and to fulfil its international treaty obligations on mutual defence against aggression.

The first C.D. (the Council of Workers' and Peasants' Defence) was set up by the All-Russia Central Executive Committee on November 30, 1918, under the chairmanship of Lenin. The C.D. was fully empowered to mobilise the republic's human and material resources for the defence of the country. Its decisions were binding all departments, organisations, institutions and __PRINTERS_P_81_COMMENT__ 6-1192 81 citizens. In the years of foreign military intervention and the Civil War, 1918--1922, the C.D. made a major contribution to transforming the country's economy and mobilising human and material resources for the needs of the front. In April 1920 it was reorganised into the Council of Labour and Defence (C.L.D.). As an organ of the Council of People's Commissars (C.P.C.) of the USSR (prior to 1923, the C.P.C. of the RSFSR), the C.L.D., as a commission of the latter, guided the work of all departments in the sphere of defence and economic development; it also played a major role in building up the Red Army and Navy. In 1937 the C.L.D. was dissolved.

After nazi Germany's attack on the USSR in June 1941, the Party Central Committee, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR jointly decreed to establish the State Defence Committee (S.D.C.) on 30 June 1941. In the years of the Great Patriotic War of 1941--1945 the S.D.C., endowed with emergency powers, had full authority in such matters as directing the activities of People's Commissariats and departments, guiding their efforts towards mobilising all material and human resources in the country for the victory. The S.D.C. was dissolved immediately after the end of the war with Japan in September 1945.

In contrast to the S.D.C., the C.D. of the USSR is not an extraordinary, but a regular constitutional body of the USSR. The 1977 Constitution of the USSR is the first Fundamental Law of the USSR to provide for the establishment of a C.D. and establish a procedure for its formation. This was done to emphasise the importance of the body and the fact that this is a body of the Soviet state.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Council of Ministers of the USSR.

"The Council of Ministers of the USSR, i. e. the Government of the USSR, is the highest executive and administrative body of state authority of the USSR" (Art. 128 of the Constitution of the USSR).

The Council of Ministers of the USSR is formed by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR at a joint sitting of 82 the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities (Art. 129). The procedure of the forming of the government is as follows: the C.M. formed by the outgoing Supreme Soviet of the USSR, tenders its resignation to a newly elected Supreme Soviet of the USSR at its first session (Art. 129); the Chairman of the C.M. makes a statement to the effect; after considering this statement, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR appoints the Chairman of the C.M. of the USSR and requests him to submit his proposals on the personal composition of the C.M.; simultaneously the Supreme Soviet of the USSR decides whether the outgoing C.M. of the USSR shall retain its powers until the time of the formation of the new C.M.; subsequently the Supreme Soviet of the USSR discusses the proposal of the Chairman of the C.M. concerning the composition of the C.M.; voting on the candidates is held jointly by the deputies of the two chambers of the Supreme Soviet or the USSR and can be held separately on each individual candidate or simultaneously on the whole list of candidates. Traditionally the nomination to the post of Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR is made on behalf of the CPSU Central Committee.

The Council of Ministers of the USSR consists of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, First Vice-Chairmen and Vice-Chairmen, Ministers of the USSR and Chairmen of State Committees of the USSR (Art. 129).

On the recommendation of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR may include in the Government of the USSR heads of other bodies and organisations of the USSR, for example the Chairman of the Board of the State Bank of the USSR, head of the Central Statistical Board of the USSR, and so on. Under the Soviet Constitution Chairmen of the Council of Ministers of the Union Republics are ex officio members of the Council of Ministers of the USSR (Art. 129). The Chairman of the Committee for People's Control of the USSR is also a member of the Council of Ministers of the USSR.

__PRINTERS_P_83_COMMENT__ 6* 83

The newly-formed C.M. submits a statement on its proposed activities to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

The Government of the USSR functions in accordance with the decisions of the Communist Party and the main tasks of the socialist state of the whole people and is guided in its activity by the principles of democratic centralism, socialist federalism, socialist legality, openness, publicity and consideration of public opinion.

The Council of Ministers of the USSR heads the entire system of bodies of state administration of the USSR. It coordinates and directs the work of ministries, state committees and departments of the USSR (Art. 135), and is empowered to rescind their acts; it directs and coordinates the activities of the Councils of Ministers of Union republics in executing the decisions of the higher bodies of state authority and administration of the USSR; it assures the necessary interaction between ministries, state committees and departments of the USSR, on the one hand, and the Councils of Ministers of Union republics on the other. The C.M. has the right, in matters within the jurisdiction of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, to suspend execution of decisions and ordinances of the Councils of Ministers of Union republics, and to rescind acts of ministries and state committees of the USSR, and of other bodies subordinate to it (Art. 134).

The jurisdiction of the Council of Ministers of the USSR is rather broad: it is empowered to decide all matters of state administration which are within the jurisdiction of the USSR insofar as, under the Constitution, they do not come within the competence of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR or its Presidium (Art. 131). Acts of the C.M., along with acts of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and its Presidium, are binding throughout the USSR for all bodies, organisations, officials and citizens.

Within its powers the Council of Ministers of the USSR:~

---ensures direction of economic, social and cultural development; drafts and implements measures to promote the well-being and cultural development of the people, to develop science and engineering, to ensure 84 rational exploitation and conservation of natural resources, to consolidate the monetary and credit system, to pursue a uniform prices, wages and social security policy, and to organise state insurance and a uniform system of accounting and statistics; organises the management of industrial, constructional, and agricultural enterprises and amalgamations, transport and communications undertakings, banks and other organisations and institutions of All-Union subordination;~

---drafts current and long-term state plans for the economic and social development of the USSR and the Budget of the USSR, and submits them to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR; takes measures to execute the state plans and Budget; and reports to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on the implementation of the plans and Budget;~

---implements measures to defend the interests of the state, protect socialist property and maintain public order, and guarantee and protect citizens' rights and freedoms;~

---takes measures to ensure state security;~

---exercises general direction of the development of the Armed Forces of the USSR, and determines the annual contingent of citizens to be called up for active military service;~

---provides general direction in regard to relations with other states, foreign trade, and economic, scientific, technical and cultural cooperation of the USSR with other countries; takes measures to ensure fulfilment of the USSR's international treaties; and ratifies and denounces inter-governmental international agreements;~

---when necessary, it forms committees, central boards and other departments under the Council of Ministers of the USSR to deal with matters of economic, social and cultural development, and defence (Art. 131).

The jurisdiction of the C.M. is defined in greater detail by the Law on the Council of Ministers of the USSR, other laws of the USSR and by government decrees issued on their basis.

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The C.M. decides the most important matters that come within its competence at sittings held at least once every three months. In order to deal with questions relating to guidance of the economy and other matters of state administration, the C.M. of the USSR functions through the intermediary of its standing body, the Presidium of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, which consists of the Chairman, the First Vice-- Chairmen and Vice-Chairmen (Art. 132), and other members of the Government of the USSR (if the C.M. so decides). Sittings of the Presidium are held regularly as the need for them arises. Certain matters of state administration which come within the competence of the C.M. of the USSR and require urgent action can be decided by its Chariman.

On the basis of and in pursuance of the laws of the USSR and other decisions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and its Presidium, the C.M. issues decisions and ordinances and verifies their execution (Art. 133). Decisions of the C.M. which are of normative nature or of major economic or general importance are issued in the form of decisions signed by the Chairman of the C.M. and the Head of the Managing Department of the C.M. of the USSR. Decisions on matters related to its ongoing activities and other current matters are issued in the form of ordinances signed by the Chairman of the C.M. or his First Vice-Chairmen.

The C.M. is responsible and accountable to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, and, between sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. The C.M. reports regularly on its work to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (Art. 130). Between sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, its Presidium can hold hearings on reports of the C.M. concerning its activities. The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR can revoke decisions and ordinances of the C.M. should they fail to conform to the law (Art. 121).

The preparation of matters for consideration by the C.M. and the systematic monitoring of the execution of its decisions are carried out by the Managing Department of the C.M. of the USSR.

86 __ALPHA_LVL2__ Court Protection.

Art. 57 of the USSR Constitution reads, in part: "Citizens of the USSR have the right to protection by the courts against encroachments on their honour and reputation, life and health, and personal freedom and property.'' Any such encroachment is punishable under the civil and criminal legislation of the USSR and the Union Republics no matter who the perpetrator is.

The USSR Constitution also states that actions by officials that contravene the law or exceed their powers, and infringe the rights of citizens, may be appealed against in a court in the manner prescribed by law. E.g., complaints (q. v.) of citizens against unlawful dismissal from a job, suspension of a driving licence, etc., may be brought to court.

The Soviet constitutions and other legal acts acknowledge the right of citizens to compensation for damages (q. v.) resulting from the unlawful actions of state and social bodies and officials acting in their official capacity.

Under Art. 158, a defendant in a criminal action is guaranteed the right to legal aid. He may offer explanations in connection with the charges brought against him, lodge appeals or challenge the court, enter objections to the motions, petitions and arguments of the adverse party, present evidence and take part in examining it, lodge complaints against the actions of the investigator, procurator or the court, appeal against the sentence and also perform other procedural acts provided for by law. The defendant is also entitled to have the services of a defence counsel, who is obliged to render him legal aid and help the court establish all the facts in the case, regardless of whether they acquit the defendant or only mitigate his position. In cases provided for by the law, legal aid is rendered to citizens free of charge.

Any limitation of the defendant's right to legal protection is a serious violation of legality and is a sufficient ground to quash the sentence.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Courts.

Under the Fundamental Law of the USSR, the courts of law are bodies administering justice (q. v.) (Art. 151 of the USSR Constitution).

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C. in the USSR form a single judicial system. The procedure for the formation and the powers of the courts are determined by the Fundamentals of Legislation of the USSR and the Union Republics on the Judicial System, by the Law on the Supreme Court of the USSR, by Laws on the Judicial Systems of Union Republics, and by the Statute on Military Tribunals.

In the Soviet Union, all C. are subdivided into C. of the USSR and C. of the Union Republics. The former include the Supreme Court of the USSR (q. v.) and military tribunals (q. v.), and the latter---all the other C., i.e. the Supreme Courts of Union and Autonomous Republics, Territory, Regional, and city C., C. of Autonomous Regions, C. of Autonomous Areas, and district (city) people's C.

The basic link in the Soviet judicial system is the people's C . The judges of these C. are elected by the citizens living in the district (town) on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot for the term of five years; people's assessors of district (town) people's C. are elected by a show of hands for a term of two and a half years at general meetings of citizens at their place of work or residence. In electing people's judges the district, town or ward Soviet endorses the chairman of a respective people's court from among the people's judges elected. In conformity with the legislation of Union republics on civil and criminal procedure, people's C. try the majority of civil and criminal cases; the hearing of cases is collegial (i.e. conducted by a people's judge and two people's assessors). Also, in cases provided for by law, people's C. (people's judges) deal with administrative offences.

Regional, Territory, city C., C. of Autonomous Regions and Autonomous Areas, as well as the Supreme C. of Autonomous Republics are C. of second instance. They are elected by Soviets during session for a term of five years and consist of judges (the chairman of the court, his deputies, and members of the court), and people's assessors. F.ach of these C. functions through the divisions on civil and on criminal cases, 88 and through the presidium of the court. Divisions hear, as C. of first instance, the civil and criminal cases placed by law within their competence, and act as C. of cassation with respect to people's C. In courts of first instance, cases are heard by a judge and two people's assessors, and in C. of cassation, by three judges. The court presidium, which consists of the court chairman, his deputies and a certain number of the more qualified members of the court, supervises the work of lower C. As the highest judicial body of an Autonomous Republic, the Supreme Court also supervises the administration of justice by all the C. of the Republic.

The Supreme Court of a Union Republic---the highest judicial body of that republic---supervises the administration of justice of all its C. It is elected by the Supreme Soviet of the Union Republic for a term of five years and consists of the court chairman, his deputies, members of the court and people's assessors. The Supreme Court acts through the divisions on civil and criminal cases, the plenary session, and, in a number of Union Republics, the court presidium as well. The divisions consider, as C. of first instance, the more important civil and criminal cases. Their judgements and sentences are final and may not be appealed against. The same collegiums act as C. of cassation with respect to cases tried by lower C., and in the republics which have C. of second instancedischarge supervisory powers over the latter. The majority of presidiums, and in certain republics, plenary sessions of Supreme Courts, also have supervisory powers. In addition, the plenary session of a Supreme Court, which includes all judges of this court, is authorised to issue guiding instructions to the republic's C. when questions arise during court trials concerning the application of republican legislation.

In dealing with particular cases, all C. making up the judicial system of the USSR are independent of any state or social bodies and are guided by the law alone.

Judges and assessors in people's and higher C. are accountable to their electors or to the Soviets which 89 elected them, report to them regularly, and may be recalled by them in the manner prescribed by law.

Guidance of the C. by the USSR Ministry for Justice and its local bodies assumes the form of organisation and provision of methods within the limits established by law and precludes the possibility of interference with the administration of justice. When supervising the observance of legal norms during court trials, the Procurator-General of the USSR and the procurators under him promote the purposes of justice (q. v.) and the objectives of the court, strictly adhering to the principle or the independence of judges and their subordination to the law alone.

The independence of the C. is also ensured by granting judges and assessors immunity from criminal responsibility. Judges and assessors who are discharging their duties in the court may not be prosecuted or arrested, or incur a court-imposed administrative penalty without the sanction, depending on the status of the court, of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Supreme Soviet of a Union Republic, or their Presidiums. Judges may be charged with disciplinary responsibility in accordance with established procedure and only by bodies consisting of judges.

Courts function in conformity with the rules of legal procedure (q. v.) defined by the Constitution of the USSR and other legal acts of the USSR and the Union republics.

Under Art. 157 of the USSR Constitution, proceedings in all C. are open to the public. Hearings in camera are only allowed in cases provided for by law, with observance of all the rules of judicial procedure. Legislation provides for such hearings where state secrets might be involved or, at the court's discretion to prevent divulging information concerning the intimate affairs of participants in the case. Judgements and sentences in all cases are announced publicly.

In conformity with the Fundamental Law of the USSR, judicial proceedings are conducted in the language of a Union republic, Autonomous republic, Autonomous region, or Autonomous area, or in the language spoken by the majority of the people in the 90 locality (Art. 159). Persons participating in court proceedings, who do not know the language in which they are being conducted, have the right to make statements, give evidence and lodge petitions in their native tongue, and have the services of an interpreter provided by the investigation bodies and the court. Court documents and materials resulting from investigation of civil and criminal cases are translated into the native language or another familiar language and given to the persons involved in the case and the defendant.

The USSR Constitution allows for participation in civil and criminal proceedings of representatives of social organisations and work collectives (Art. 162). They may act as voluntary counsel for the defence or for the prosecution in a criminal case. They can also take part in civil proceedings either on their own initiative or on suggestion from the court.

Constitutional provisions guaranteeing the defendant the right to legal aid and establishing the presumption of innocence (Art. 158 and 160) cover only criminal proceedings.

Although founded on a single democratic basis and having the administration of justice as their common goal, criminal and civil proceedings differ considerably, pursuing as they do different legal objectives. The aims set by the Soviet civil procedure are as follows: to deal with civil cases promptly and competently, thus protecting the social and political system of the USSR; to defend the rights, freedoms and interests of citizens, as well as the rights and interests of state enterprises, organisations, their associations and social organisations. The aims pursued by Soviet criminal procedure are: to reveal the crime promptly and fully, to find the culprits and to apply the law correctly so that each person who has committed an offence is punished commensurately with his guilt, and to ensure that not a single innocent person be found guilty and sentenced.

The court apparatus which enables it to exercise its authority when hearing cases and performing other functions consists of the court secretary who keeps a record of the proceedings when that court acts as a 91 court of first instance; a bailiff who ensures that court judgements, sentences, riders and orders are observed; a consultant (in structural divisions of higher courts) who examines and sums up court proceedings, analyses judicial statistics and systematises legislation.

The court educates Soviet citizens in the spirit of strict and universal observance of the Constitution of the USSR and other Soviet laws, of protection of socialist property, labour discipline, a conscientious attitude towards professional and public duties, respect for the rights, dignity and honour of citizens and the rules of socialist community life.

The growing role of C. as educational bodies has been mentioned in a number of the Constitution's new articles: Citizens of the USSR have the right to court protection (q. v.) against encroachments on their honour and reputation, life and health, and personal freedom and property (Art. 57); "Actions by officials that contravene the law or exceed their powers, and infringe the rights of citizens, may be appealed against in a court in the manner prescribed by law" (Art. 58); "No one may be adjudged guilty of a crime and subjected to punishment (q. v.) as a criminal except by the sentence of a court and in conformity with the law" (Art. 160).

Soviet C. have long had the respect and confidence of the people, who elect their most trusted representatives as assessors. At elections which took place in the RSFSR in 1979, over 415,000 people's assessors were elected; 53.4 per cent of them were workers and collective farmers, and 45.3 per cent---Party members and Party candidates.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Culture.

"Citizens of the USSR shall have the right to enjoy cultural benefits.

``This right is ensured by broad access to the cultural treasures of their own land and of the world that are preserved in state and other public collections; by the development and fair distribution of cultural and educational institutions throughout the country; by developing television and radio broadcasting and the publishing of books, newspapers and periodicals, and by 92 extending the free library service; and by expanding cultural exchanges with other countries.'' (Art. 46 of the Constitution of the USSR).

Cultural development in the USSR is the result of the cultural revolution and the building of socialism. It took place on the basis of what is best in the world civilisation and its best traditions, assimilated by the working people creatively and critically. Socialist C. is a new qualitative stage in the spiritual development of mankind.

One of the most important functions of Soviet socialist C. is to mould individuals marked by spiritual wealth, firm ideological convictions and intellectual and emotional development. Art. 20 of the Constitution of the USSR says: "In accordance with the communist ideal---The free development of each is the condition of the free development of all'---the state pursues the aim of giving citizens more and more real opportunities to apply their creative energies, abilities, and talents, and to develop their personality in every way.'' Thus, promoting the role of socialist C. and the arts in the ideological, political, ethical and aesthetic education of Soviet people, and in cultivating their intellectual requirements, is an important element in the implementation of the social and economic development programme elaborated by the CPSU. The Fundamental Law of the USSR stipulates a number of responsibilities incumbent upon the Soviet state, a state of the whole people, as regards further development of culture. Among these are the improvement of the uniform system of public education (Art. 25) and the protection, augmenting and extensive use of society's cultural wealth and encouraging the development of the professional, amateur and folk arts (Art. 27). Citizens of the USSR, in accordance with the aims of building communism, are guaranteed freedom of scientific, technical and artistic work. The rights of authors, inventors and innovators are protected by the state (Art. 47).

The attention paid by the CPSU and the Soviet Government to the further blossoming of cultural wealth under developed socialism is clearly demonstrated by 93 the decisions of the CPSU Central Committee on work with artistic youth (1976), and that by the CPSU Central Committee and the Council of Ministers of the USSR on measures for further improvement of cultural services to the rural population (1977). The law on the protection and use of historical and cultural monuments (1976) is another manifestation of the state's concern for the cultural and historical heritage.

Socialist C. and the arts continuously develop and play an ever increasing role in the moulding of the Marxist-Leninist world outlook and in ever fuller satisfaction of the diversified cultural requirements of Soviet people. The activities of social organisations, creative unions, cultural workers and artists, and cultural facilities, are expanding, and all forms of artistic, creative activity are developing.

Soviet cultural development could be illustrated, for example, by the achievements of the USSR in public education (see Public Education). In their spare time, millions of Soviet people now pursue their hobbies in various fields of scientific, technical and artistic work. All the prerequisites for these activities have been established in this country. In 1983, there were 133,000 public libraries in the country with a total of over two billion copies of books and magazines. There are personal libraries in virtually every family. In 1983, over two billion copies of books and brochures were published in the USSR; the total number of the book titles published in the country from 1918 through 1980 was 3.2 million, while the total number of the copies printed was 54 billion. Printed matter was published in 158 languages, including 89 spoken in the USSR. There were around 140,000 clubs in the country, including almost 120,000 rural ones. Some 21 million people participated in all kinds of amateur performers' societies.

The attendance of museums, exhibitions, theatres and movie theatres in this country runs in the millions. In 1981, there were 1,599 museums of different kinds, 611 professional theatres and 151,400 movie projection units, including 123,900 in rural areas. An important role in the popularisation of culture is played by 94 television and radio broadcasting. A second nationwide TV channel began broadcasting in 1982.

The expansion of cultural exchanges with other countries is a constitutional guarantee of the exercise by citizens of their right to enjoy cultural benefits.

The development of ideological and artistic contacts with the other socialist community countries is in the forefront of the development of international cultural relations. Held on a reciprocal basis are culture and art event days, friendship months, art festivals, exhibition exchanges, and so on. The cultural exchanges among countries and nations play a major role in creating an atmosphere of confidence. In accordance with the Final Act of the Helsinki Conference, which it has signed, the USSR has taken additional measures to expand international book, film and art work exchanges.

[95] __ALPHA_LVL1__ D __ALPHA_LVL2__ Damage.

The USSR Constitution regards as D. the harm done by unlawful actions of citizens to the interests of society, state, or individual citizens. Among such actions the Fundamental Law lists the use of property personally owned by citizens or placed in their use to the detriment of the interests of society (Art. 13); exercise by citizens of their rights and freedoms to the detriment of the interests of society or the state, or the rights of other citizens (Art. 39); as well as unlawful actions taken by state and social bodies and by persons acting in their official capacity to the detriment of individual citizens.

D. may be material or non-material. The former embraces instances when D. has been done to the material position of the state or the property status of the individual. The consequence of this is losses. The Soviet civil legislation distinguishes two types of losses: direct losses (positive losses), and the income which should, but has not been derived owing to an unlawful act (lost profit). The law lays down the principle of full compensation for D.s, although in certain cases partial compensation is possible, too. Non-material D. is mischief done to a person's moral character, derogation of his character, dignity, etc.; infliction of moral and physical suffering; undermining a person's reputation, etc. Protection of the honour and dignity of Soviet citizens and of their personal boons is ensured by criminal and civil legislation. However, Soviet laws do not provide for material compensation for D. to the moral character.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Decree.

"The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR promulgates decrees and adopts decisions" (Art. 123 of the USSR Constitution).

A D. is an act of the Presidiums of the Supreme Soviets of the USSR and of the Union republics. Unlike a law, which is always normative, i.e., establishes and contains the more general norms and rules of conduct, a decree may be either normative or non-normative, i.e., apply to an individual or an isolated occurrence.

96

D.s are promulgated in conformity with or for the purpose of enforcing the Constitution, laws of the USSR, and cannot abrogate or amend them. This refers to the D.s which are promulgated by the Supreme Soviet Presidium on questions which under the Constitution are the exclusive prerogative of the former: interpretation of laws (q. v.), ratification of international treaties, conferring military and diplomatic ranks and other special titles, etc.

Between sessions of the USSR Supreme Soviet, laws may be amended, either directly or ultimately, by D.s that are promulgated by the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet when the Presidium, within the boundaries defined by the Constitution, performs the functions of the highest body of state authority on questions that are the exclusive prerogative of the USSR Supreme Soviet itself (introduction of necessary amendments into legislative acts (q. v.), approval of changes in the boundaries between Union republics, formation and abolition of ministeries and state committees of the USSR). They are subject to confirmation by the next session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (Art. 122). Upon confirmation, such D.s acquire juridical force.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Defence Capability.

"The state ensures the security and defence capability of the country, and supplies the Armed Forces of the USSR with everything necessary for that purpose."(Art. 32 of the USSR Constitution.)

D.C. is the capacity of state for defence against armed attack, the degree of its readiness to such defence.

To ensure the country's security and to strengthen its defence capability is, under the USSR Constitution, the duty of state bodies and social organisations, officials and citizens. The local Soviets of People's Deputies help to build up the country's D.C. on their territory.

The D.C. is determined primarily by the strength and combat worthiness of the Armed Forces of the USSR (q. v.). It is also characterised by the country's moral and political potential, that is, the socio-- __PRINTERS_P_97_COMMENT__ 7-1192 97 political and ideological unity of the Soviet society, the Soviet people's patriotism, love for their socialist Motherland, and selfless loyalty to communist ideals. Other key elements of the country's D. C. are the concentration of the main means of production as well as the bulk of the national income in the hands of the Soviet state, the country's great economic potential and progressive science, as well as the political and economic systems which enable the country to readily mobilise all its forces and resources to repulse the enemy. This potential of the Soviet state was dramatically demonstrated during the 1941--1945 Great Patriotic War of the Soviet people against the nazi invaders.

Throughout the existence of the Soviet state, the CPSU and the Soviet Government have taken advantage of all the possibilities offered by the Soviet social and state systems in order to maintain the country's D. C. at a high level.

The Constitution of the USSR also spells out measures designed to organise the effective defence of the country in case of outside attack. It states that the duty of the Armed Forces of the USSR is to be in constant combat readiness, guaranteeing that any aggressor is instantly repulsed (Art. 31). Article 121 of the Constitution of the USSR stipulates that between sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR shall declare state of war in the event of an armed attack on the USSR or when it is necessary to meet international treaty obligations relating to mutual defence against aggression, and shall form the Council of Defence of the USSR.

The USSR and other countries of the socialist community pursue a consistent policy towards halting the arms race, primarily the nuclear arms race, reducing and, ultimately, completely eliminating the threat of nuclear war. At the same time, the fraternal countries have scrupulously strengthened the defence capability of the socialist community in order to prevent NATO from attaining military superiority over the Warsaw Treaty Organisation, to secure the continuation of the existing military balance, to ward off the threat of war 98 and to preserve peace for the present and future generations.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Defence of the Socialist Motherland.

The USSR Constitution devotes a special (fifth) chapter to this subject. Among other things, it states that "defence of the Socialist Motherland is one of the most important functions of the state, and is the concern of the whole people,'' that it is "the duty of the Armed Forces to the people ... to provide reliable defence" of the country (Art. 31). Art. 62 states that "defence of the Socialist Motherland is the sacred duty of every citizen of the USSR''.

The CPSU and the Soviet Government spare no efforts to ensure the country's security and its adequate defence against armed attack (see Defence Capability) and subversive activities, particularly those carried out by the secret services of imperialist states (see State Security). The Party and Government also strive to foster patriotism in the Soviet people and urge citizens to be prepared to defend their country.

Lenin said that "no revolution is worth anything unless it can defend itself''. Immediately after the October Revolution, the Soviet state began to organise a regular army (1918) and bodies of state security (which in 1917 were temporary and extraordinary). By 1921 these had been established on a permanent basis. At that time the main goal of the army and state security forces was to suppress the resistance of the overthrown classes, and to prevent and combat armed intervention and subversive activities staged by imperialist states.

After society has entered the stage of developed socialism and with the growth of the state of proletarian dictatorship into a state of the whole people there is no longer any necessity to suppress the resistance of the overthrown classes. The Soviet Union has no need to maintain an army for domestic purposes. However, the further exacerbation of the general crisis of capitalism is attended by the whipping up by the USA and other imperialist states of international tensions, the escalation of the arms race, the growth of the subversive activity against the USSR and the __PRINTERS_P_99_COMMENT__ 7* 99 Emacs-File-stamp: "/home/ysverdlov/leninist.biz/en/1986/SCAD300/20070925/199.tx" __EMAIL__ webmaster@leninist.biz __OCR__ ABBYY 6 Professional (2007.09.27) __WHERE_PAGE_NUMBERS__ bottom __FOOTNOTE_MARKER_STYLE__ [0-9]+ __ENDNOTE_MARKER_STYLE__ [0-9]+ other socialist community countries, and the intensification of armed provocations against sovereign states. In this situation the CPSU and the Soviet Government, although they will never stop or lessen its efforts in the struggle for peace, are forced to take steps to consolidate the country's defence capacity and its Armed Forces.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Democratic Centralism.

Art. 3 of the USSR Constitution reads: "The Soviet state is organised and functions on the principle of democratic centralism, namely the electiveness of all bodies of state authority from the lowest to the highest, their accountability to the people, and the obligation of lower bodies to observe the decisions of higher ones. Democratic centralism combines central leadership with local initiative and creative activity and with the responsibility of each state body and official for the work entrusted to them.''

D.C. is one of the basic principles along which the CPSU, the Soviet state and social organisations are organised and function. Party documents have repeatedly stressed that it is essential to consolidate both aspects of D.C.: on the one hand, to promote centralism, thus stemming the growth of narrow-departmental and local-interests-first tendencies, and on the other, to advance democracy and local initiative. D.C. remains an immutable norm of the life of the Communist Party and this presupposes, in particular, the closest possible link between the centre and the localities, between the Party's leading organs and its rank and file. Moreover, it is a two-way link.

More efficient centralised leadership is attained by a scientifically founded division of labour among the various links of the state apparatus and definitely established correlations between the rights and responsibilities of central and local bodies. The all-Union bodies seek to promote long-term plans and forecasts of social and economic development, establish a link between current and long-term planning, introduce a higher scientific standard of management, and solve the more pressing issues of public life.

100 __NOTE__ Page numbers are in red.

A specific manifestation of D.C. in the system of administrative bodies is the ``double'' subordination of the latter's many links. Ministries and state committees of the Union republics and all ministries and other branch and functional bodies in the Autonomous republics are accountable both to the Council of Ministers of the republic to which they belong, and to a higher ministry or state committee (Arts. 129 and 136 of the RSFSR Constitution). Departments and boards of the executive committees of local Soviets are, as a rule, subordinate not only to the given executive committee but to higher bodies of branch and functional management (Art. 150 of the RSFSR Constitution). This type of subordination ensures branch centralisation and sufficient attention to local conditions.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Democracy

---see Socialist Democracy.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Deputy

---see People's Deputy.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Developed Socialism.

The achievements scored by the USSR in developing the productive forces, economic and social relations, socialist democracy and culture, and in moulding the new man brought the country to a new historical stage, one of developed socialism. The basic task at this stage is the all-round perfection of socialist society and the further advancement of the USSR towards communism on the basis of rapid socio-economic development.

The experience of the USSR and other socialist countries shows that the laying of socialism's groundwork, that is, the elimination of the exploiting classes and the assertion of social ownership of the means of production in all sectors of the national economy, does not mean that the transition to communism can begin right away. Before this can be accomplished, socialism must pass through certain stages. After laying down the foundations of socialism in the country in the mid19305, the Soviet people have traversed a long historical road and brought about significant changes in all spheres of social life. These changes were reflected in the 1977 Constitution of the USSR. In a concise and precise form the Fundamental Law of the USSR 101 defined the principal features of a developed socialist society.

``It is a society in which powerful productive forces and progressive science and culture have been created, in which the well-being of the people is constantly rising, and more and more favourable conditions are being provided for the all-round development of the individual.

``It is a society of mature socialist social relations, in which, on the basis of the drawing together of all classes and social strata and of the juridical and actual equality of all its nations and nationalities and their fraternal co-operation, a new historical community of people has been formed---the Soviet people.

``It is a society of high organisational capacity, ideological commitment, and consciousness of the working people, who are patriots and internationalists.

``It is a society in which the law of life is concern of all for the good of each and concern of each for the good of all.

``It is a society of true democracy, the political system of which ensures effective management of all public affairs, ever more active participation of the working people in running the state, and the combining of citizens' real rights and freedoms with their obligations and responsibility to society.''

D.S. is a historically determined stage on the road to communism. However, the attainment by socialism of this stage of maturity does not imply that the country has approached the higher phase of communism. For a long period of time mature socialism remains within the historical framework of the first phase of the communist formation. It is only as mature socialism develops and as its opportunities are fully recognised and completely utilised that the gradual transition to communism becomes possible.

The CPSU and the Soviet Government are doing everything necessary to make full use of the enormous potential of the D.S. to build communism in the USSR. The main landmarks along this road are the establishment of the material and technological base of communism, further extension of socialist democracy 102 (q. v.) and the harmonious development of the individual (q. v.). The period of D.S. is marked by the restructuring of all social relationships along collectivist lines inherent in the new system, which encompasses material, cultural and all other aspects of life. The period of developed socialism is a historical stage of considerable duration which will go through a number of phases in its evolution. Only experience will show what forms these phases will assume and what their duration will be. The emergence of the most essential and general features of a classless social structure can take place within the historical framework of D.S.

The experience accumulated by the CPSU, and a creative, scientific analysis of the changes taking place in the life of the country and in the international arena, make it possible to determine, more precisely and realistically than before, the prospects of Soviet society's future development and the ways and means of reaching its ultimate goal---communism.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Disarmament.

Art. 28 of the USSR Constitution reads, in part: "The foreign policy of the USSR is aimed at ... achieving universal and complete disarmament...''

This provision of the Fundamental Law of the USSR has profound social meaning. It reflects the fact that in the socialist society there are no, and there can be no social forces which are interested in accumulating means of warfare or profiting from it. " Disarmament is the ideal of socialism,'' wrote Lenin in 1916. Struggle for D., for the reduction of the threat of war and curbing the arms race represents the thrust of the activities of the CPSU and the Soviet state and reflects its overall policy of peace and security for the peoples, and peaceful coexistence of states with different social systems.

Imperialism's unbridled stockpiling of mass destruction weapons not only results in a waste of colossal material resources of states but also creates a real threat to the peace and security of the peoples. The Soviet state took the pioneering step of making practical proposals on the elaboration of measures for general and 103 complete D. As far back as 1922 the Soviet Union proposed a programme for general reduction of armaments. Struggle for D. intensified after the Second World War as a result of the development of the nuclear weapons and the escalation of the arms race by imperialist powers to global and unprecedentedly dangerous proportions. The fraternal socialist countries joined the USSR in the struggle for curbing the arms race. The USSR and other members of the defensive military-political alliance of the European socialist countries---the Warsaw Treaty Organisation---initiated, through its Political Consultative Committee, a number of peace moves and proposals designed to solve the problem of D. For example, it was on their initiative that the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe was convened in 1975; they also supported the holding of the UN General Assembly Special Session on Disarmament in 1978. The Peace Programme proclaimed by the CPSU and consistently implemented by it in the 1970s and 1980s has played an important role in the working out of measures to curb the arms race.

The struggle to curb the arms race is particularly important and urgent at present due to the development of qualitatively new weapons of mass destruction.lt may become exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to control and reduce these weapons through joint efforts.

The major foreign policy objective of the USSR is to stop the nuclear arms race, which poses the greatest threat to mankind, and to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons. The Soviet Union has committed itself not to use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear states which have no such weapons in their territories and called for non-deployment of nuclear weapons in territories of states where there are none at present. Thereupon the USSR proposed to freeze nuclear stockpiles and to begin their reduction with the view to total elimination.

The Soviet Union has been vigorously pressing for a ban on all other types of mass destruction weapons as well. One of the major achievements in this field has 104 been the entry into force of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction. The USSR also favours the continuation of talks with Western states on the prohibition of chemical weapons and has proposed to make Europe free of such weapons. The USSR has signed the Convention on the banning or limiting of the use of certain conventional weapons which may be regarded as excessively injurious or non-selective (such as certain types of land mines, incendiary weapons and weapons whose fragments in the human body cannot be detected with the help of X-rays). The USSR is making every effort to achieve progress at the Vienna talks on the reduction of armed forces and armaments in Central Europe.

The 26th CPSU Congress pointed out that the world situation called for fresh efforts to remove the threat of war. To this end, the Congress put forward a number of far-reaching ideas and realistic proposals. The USSR then expressed its readiness to begin negotiations on the limitation of any types of weapons. In an effort to make the peoples of the world aware of the dire consequences of nuclear war, the Congress proposed setting up an authoritative international committee which would concern itself with demonstrating the vital need for preventing a nuclear catastrophe. The Congress also proposed convening a special session of the Security Council with the participation of the highest leaders of member-states of the Council and, if need be, leaders of other states, to search for ways of normalising the international situation and preventing war.

The USSR has repeatedly put forward important initiatives which represent a veritable programme for the phasing out of nuclear weapons. Especially important in this respect is the Soviet Union's unilateral commitment not to be the first to use nuclear weapons. In late 1982 the USSR made new peace proposals to the USA: to immediately halt (freeze) the build-up of strategic weapons with the subsequent reduction of more than 25 per cent of both countries' arsenals, to 105 effect a considerable reduction in the total number of nuclear devices and a drastic curb on the further improvement of nuclear weapons.

The USSR proposed to reduce all medium-range nuclear weapons in Europe by more than two-thirds.

Warsaw Treaty members proposed in January 1983 to conclude a treaty on mutual non-use of military force and the maintenance of relations of peace between member-states of the WTO and NATO.

Soviet proposals include both political and military measures. They fully correspond to the aspirations of the peoples and provide a powerful stimulus for the struggle for peace and for curbing the arms race.

D. has become one of the major principles of modern international law. This principle was written into the UN Charter, which authorises the General Assembly to work out general principles of D. to be subsequently circulated as recommendations among UN memberstates and the Security Council members. Moreover, there now exists an entire system of treaties and agreements on matters of disarmament. D. today is not merely a subject for diplomatic negotiations and conference discussions; it is a central demand of millions of people of different political persuasions. The major obstacle in the way of finding a practical solution to the problem of D. on the basis of the principle of equality and equal security is the militarist policy pursued by imperialist states, primarily by the USA.

The 27th Congress of the CPSU (1986) advanced an integral programme for the complete elimination of weapons of mass destruction by the year 2000. The implementation of this programme would open before mankind a fundamentally new stage of development, and offer a possibility to direct mankind's efforts and resources exclusively towards peaceful construction. The USSR has addressed its proposals not only to governments but also to peoples everywhere in the world.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Duties of Citizens

---see Basic Duties of Citizens.

[106] __ALPHA_LVL1__ E __ALPHA_LVL2__ Economic Levers and Incentives.

Under Art. 16 of the USSR Constitution, the state is making active use of cost accounting, profit, cost-price, and other economic levers and incentives in economic management.

E.L. and I. are among the more effective ways to accelerate scientific and technological progress, raise the quality of output and the efficiency of social production, and attain better results of economic activity.

The July 1979 decision of the CPSU Central Committee, on the further improvement of the economic mechanism and the objectives of Party and state bodies, and the joint decision of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers, on better planning and greater influence of the economic mechanism on raising the efficiency of production and quality of work, have outlined a series of highly important measures to improve the methods of economic management at the current stage of the country's economic and social development. The 26th CPSU Congress and the subsequent Plenary Meetings of the Party Central Committee also stressed the need to improve the economic mechanism and enhance its impact on raising work efficiency and quality. This is an aspect of the general process of the development of the country's social system and one of the trends in the programme of overall improvement of the economic management mechanism.

The 27th Congress of the CPSU adopted the new edition of the Programme of the CPSU and the Guidelines for the Economic and Social Development of the USSR for 1986--1990 and for the Period Ending in 2000, and put forth the task of increasing the growth rates and efficiency of the economy on the basis of the acceleration of scientific and technological progress, the technical modernisation of production, intensive utilisation of the new production potential, perfecting the system of management and tne economic mechanism and thus achieving a further rise in the Soviet people's well-being.

Increasing the role of E.L. and I. occupies an 107 important place in this drive. To encourage work collective initiative and expand the rights of production associations and enterprises, the economic incentive funds were organised (the fund of material stimulation, the cultural development and housing fund, the production development fund) in conformity with the stable norms introduced for each year of the eleventh Five-Year Plan period. The accelerated production of new, high-- quality commodities and new consumer goods has been accompanied by an increase in material incentive funds. If an association or enterprise sets itself and meets targets which surpass those set by the Five-Year Plan for the current year, allocations to the economic incentive fund are augmented. If plan targets for the fund-- forming indices nave not been met, allocations to the economic incentive funds are cut.

To encourage associations, enterprises and ministries to make efficient use of material and financial resources, the twelfth Five-Year Plan calls for ministries, which are considered ready to pass on to new forms of economic activity and economic stimulation, to receive for use at their own discretion a stable norm of deductions from profit, established on a yearly basis. Apart from financing the planned development of production, science and technology, these means are also used to form the economic incentive funds.

To promote scientific and technological progress and extend the production of highly efficient machinery and equipment, scientific research, industrial design and technological organisations, pilot laboratories, scientific and production establishments and production associations (enterprises) are adopting the costaccounting system of designing, launching production, and introduction of new machinery and equipment on the basis of orders (contracts). In ministries and state departments, a single fund for promoting science and technology has been established, and the bonus system improved to encourage the building and introduction of new machinery and equipment depending on the latter's actual overall economic effect.

To enhance the role of E.L. and I. in expanding the production of high-quality goods and improving the assortment of items, increased wholesale prices are 108 changed for quality commodities and those goods which have been awarded the State Quality Mark for using new, more efficient methods of production.

To accelerate the growth of labour productivity and reduce personnel turnover, measures have been introduced making the salaries of individual employees and of the work collective as a whole dependent on the rates of growth of labour productivity and the improvement of end results of the work of production associations and enterprises. The money saved out of the wages fund in excess of the established norm or the planned wages fund may be used to provide increments augmenting the pay rates of workers, engineers and technicians.

The team method of organisation and stimulation of labour is becoming more widespread. Within the norms and resources at their disposal, production team collectives (councils) have been granted the right to determine the size of wages and bonuses payable for the result of the work of the team as a whole depending on the actual contribution of each member to the team's effort; to introduce pay increments for high standards of skills and mastering more than one trade; to decide the winners of the socialist competition campaign within the team and how to reward them, etc.

The CPSU stresses the importance of attaining a balance between material and moral incentives. Stimulation in the broad sense implies not only encouragement but economic sanctions as well. The latter include fines and penal sanctions that may be charged if state planning discipline is not observed, mutual obligations are not honoured, the quality of the product is not up to the accepted standard, etc.

The system of measures introduced to improve the economic mechanism includes sanctions for non-- fulfilment of produce supply contracts. Stricter sanctions are imposed for production of obsolete goods. If the Five-Year Plan targets for the fund-forming indices are not fulfilled, allocations to the economic incentive funds must be reduced accordingly. These are ways of tightening planning discipline and achieving better economic results.

109

A great deal is being done to improve the system of wholesale prices in industry, upgrade the planning and stimulation systems and consolidate cost accounting in construction. Measures are being introduced to enhance the influence of credit and finance on the development of production, improve all efficiency and quality indices, raise the state revenue and reduce the losses and unproductive expenditures.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Economic System of the USSR.

According to the USSR Constitution (Art. 10), the foundation of the economic system of the USSR is socialist ownership of the means of production in the form of state (public) property and collective farm and cooperative property. Socialist ownership also embraces the property of trade unions and other non-government organisations (q. v.) which they require to carry out their purposes under their rules. The state protects socialist property and provides conditions for its growth. No one has the right to use socialist property for personal gain or other selfish ends.

The basis of the personal property (q. v.) of Soviet citizens is formed by earned income. The source of the growth of social wealth and of the well-being of the people, and of each individual, is the labour, free from exploitation, of Soviet people. In conformity with the principle of socialism "From each according to his ability, to each according to his work'', the Soviet state exercises control over the measure of labour and of consumption. Socially useful work and its results determine the person's status in society. By combining material and moral incentives and encouraging innovation and a creative attitude to work, the state helps transform labour into the prime vital need of every Soviet citizen.

Under the Constitution, the supreme goal of social production under socialism is the fullest possible satisfaction of the people's growing material, and cultural and intellectual requirements. Exploitation of man by man has forever been abolished in the Soviet Union, as well as such social evils as famine, poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, and social and national oppression, 110 which still plague the capitalist world. A characteristic feature of socialism is the fundamentally new quality of the working people's life. This does not merely refer to material well-being, but to the entire range of factors which make a man's life full and satisfying--- favourable social climate, full employment, the spirit of collectivism and comradely assistance, moral health and social optimism, and awareness that one is a true master of one's country. The Soviet Union has never deviated from the programmatic principle of the Communist Party: "Everything for the sake of man, everything for the benefit of man''.

The 27th Congress of the CPSU has charted a course towards the systematic and all-round perfection of socialism, the further advancement of Soviet society to communism on the basis of accelerated socio-- economic development. The Guidelines for the Economic and Social Development of the USSR for 1986--1990 and for the Period Ending in 2000, adopted by the Congress, outline the principal tasks and goals which will be fulfilled by the year 2000, and determine the basic tendencies of the qualitative transformation of the productive forces, the country's social development and the improvement of the people's wellbeing. To attain the goals which have been set, it is necessary to take an integrated approach to the major social and economic problems which involve practically all aspects of life in a developed socialist society: labour, daily and living conditions, leisure, culture, sport, retail trade, public catering and services, health care, education, the upbringing of children, etc. As the measures mapped out by the Party are put into practice, social and economic conditions of labour are improving, labour itself is becoming increasingly more creative, and the share of unskilled, manual and arduous physical labour is decreasing. The Party and state are implementing a programme towards raising the people's incomes, further improving the structure and standard of consumption, and supplying more goods to meet the needs of the population. Housing construction is being conducted on an impressive scale, and the quality of housing is constantly upgraded. 111 The services making housework easier and improving leisure are expanding.

Meeting to a fuller extent the people's personal and social requirements depends on the results of their work. It is the labour of workers, collective farmers and intellectuals which creates material and cultural wealth and multiplies the country's potential. Drawing on the creative initiative of people, socialist competition (q. v.), scientific and technological progress and improved forms and methods of economic management, the Soviet state promotes the growth of labour productivity, higher efficiency of production and work quality, and the dynamic, planned and balanced development of the national economy.

The economy of the USSR represents an integral economic complex (q. v.) comprising all the elements of social production, distribution and exchange on its territory. The economy is managed on the basis of state plans for economic and social development (q. v.), with due account taken of sectoral and territorial principles. The CPSU stresses the need to combine centralised direction with the managerial independence and initiative of individual enterprises, their associations and other organisations, for which purpose wide use is made of cost accounting, profit, cost-price, and other economic levers and incentives (q. v.).

Throughout its history, the Soviet Union has more than once demonstrated the considerable advantages and potential of the planned economy, and steadily continues to enhance its economic capacity. In volume of industrial production, pre-revolutionary Russia held fifth place in the world. The Soviet Union has moved to second, and with respect to the production of over 30 basic goods, including oil, steel, rolled metal, tractors, diesel and electric locomotives, cement, mineral fertilizers, woolen fabrics, leads the world.

Soviet laws permit individual labour (q. v.) activity in handicrafts, farming, the provision or services for the public, and other forms of activity based exclusively on the personal work of individual citizens and members of their families. The state regulates such work to ensure that it serves the interests of society.

112

In the interests of the present and future generations, the necessary steps are taken in the USSR to protect and make scientific, rational use of the land and its mineral and water resources, to reproduce them, to preserve the flora and fauna, the purity of air and water and improve the human environment (see Protection of the Environment).

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Education

---see Public Education.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Elections

---see Electoral System.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Electoral Commissions

---see Electoral System.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Electoral Districts

---see Electoral System.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Electoral System.

Its basic principles are enshrined in the Constitution of the USSR (Ch. 13) and in the relevant Chapters of the republican Constitutions. These principles establish the procedure for the formation of Soviets of People's Deputies (q. v.), the representative bodies of state authority.

Characteristically, the Soviet E.S. is profoundly democratic: throughout the system, all Soviets of People's Deputies are elected directly by the people, from among the people and by a method which guarantees that the will of the people is freely expressed.

The E.S. comprises suffrage and the electoral procedure.

Suffrage. "Deputies to all Soviets shall be elected on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot" (Art. 95 of the USSR Constitution). The Soviet citizens' suffrage is an important legal guarantee of their constitutional right to participate in the administration of state and public affairs (Art. 48 of the USSR Constitution and relevant articles of republican Constitutions).

The principle of universal suffrage means that all citizens of the USSR who have reached the age of 18 have the right to participate in the election of Soviets at any level. All citizens of 18 years of age and older __PRINTERS_P_113_COMMENT__ 8-1192 113 are also eligible for election to Soviets other than the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. To be eligible for election to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, a citizen must have attained the age of 21. As a rule, a citizen of the USSR is not eligible for election to more than two Soviets of People's Deputies at a time. Election laws prohibit any direct or indirect limitation of suffrage based on origin, race, nationality, sex, education, language, attitude to religion, duration of residence in a particular locality, or the nature and type of employment. Only persons legally certified insane constitute the exception.

Guarantees of the Soviet citizens' franchise begin with their inclusion in the voters' lists compiled by the executive committees of town, ward, township and rural Soviets of People's Deputies, by commanding officers of military units and captains of ships which are at sea on election day. The lists are made available for public inspection 20 days before the holding of election. If any discrepancies are discovered, they are reported to the respective executive committee; should the latter fail to rectify them, an appeal is addressed to a district (town) people's court. This procedure is a reliable guarantee of the Soviet citizens' franchise. If a voter is away from his place of residence on election day, he is issued a card entitling him to vote at any polling station, which represents yet another important guarantee of the Soviet citizens' suffrage.

Suffrage in the USSR is equal: each voter has one vote, and all voters exercise their franchise on an equal footing.

Suffrage in the USSR is based on the principle of direct ballot, when Deputies to all Soviets, from a rural one to the Supreme Soviet, are elected by citizens directly.

The USSR Constitution stipulates that elections are held by secret ballot (i.e., any control over the voters' exercise of their franchise is ruled out), guaranteeing freedom of expression of the voters' will.

In other socialist countries, suffrage is also based on the principles of universality and equality. In some socialist countries the voting age is lower (for instance, 114 in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea it is 17, and in Cuba, 16). A number of socialist countries (e.g., Poland and Hungary) provide for the possibility of disenfranchisement through a court decision. As a rule, elections in socialist countries are direct. Multi-stage elections are held to most chambers of the highest representative bodies in Yugoslavia (where the deputies are elected by lower elective bodies), and to provincial assemblies and the National Assembly or People's Power in Cuba.

In the capitalist countries, the suffrage is formally universal and equal. In practice, however, these principles are not infrequently violated to the advantage of bourgeois political parties.

The election procedure for Soviets of People's Deputies is stipulated by laws of the USSR and those of the Union and Autonomous republics, i.e., the Law on Elections to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of July 6, 1978, the laws on elections to the Supreme Soviets of the Union and Autonomous republics adopted in 1978, and the laws on elections to local Soviets of People's Deputies, adopted in 1979.

The date of election to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR is set by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, while the dates of election to other Soviets of People's Deputies are set by the Presidiums of Supreme Soviets of the Union and Autonomous republics.

An important stage in the holding of elections is thai of compilation of lists of voters. The lists are compiled so as to include all the citizens of the USSR in permanent or temporary residence in the constituencies of town, ward, township and rural Soviets of People's Deputies and so as to ensure that each voter has only one opportunity to vote during the election to the respective Soviet.

Elections of Deputies to the Soviets of People's Deputies are held in constituencies, each of which elect one deputy.

Equal numbers of constituencies are established for the election of the two chambers of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, 750 for the Soviet of Nationalities 115 and as many for the Soviet of the Union of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

The number of constituencies to elect the Supreme Soviets of Union and Autonomous republics is determined on the basis of the quantitative compositions of the Supreme Soviets as established by the republican Constitutions. For example, to elect the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR, 975 constituencies have been established.

The laws on elections to local Soviets of People's Deputies, as a rule, stipulate the upper and lower numbers of constituencies to elect the Soviets of every level and type; 1,000 constituencies have been created to elect the Moscow City Soviet, and 600 each for the Leningrad and Kiev City Soviets. The exact numbers of constituencies to elect each local Soviet and their boundaries are established by the executive committees of the next highest Soviets or, accordingly, by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Union or Autonomous republic, depending on the size of the population, area and other local conditions.

The boundaries of the Supreme Soviets' constituencies are determined by their Presidiums. Each of the Soviet constituency has been established so as to include equal populations. For the election of the Soviet of the Union of the USSR Supreme Soviet, they comprise equal shares of the population throughout the territory of the USSR; for the election of the Soviet of Nationalities, they comprise equal populations throughout the territory of the corresponding Union republic, Autonomous republic or Autonomous region. In fixing the boundaries of constituencies, administrative-territorial divisions are taken into account. Other aspects are also applicable to elections to local Soviets.

In most socialist countries, constituencies for the election of representative bodies of state authority, like those in the USSR, are single-member ones, while the principles of their establishment are similar to those laid down by Soviet legislation. Poland, the German Democratic Republic, Vietnam and Yugoslavia, have multi-member constituencies.

In the capitalist countries, constituencies are 116 sometimes established with the use of gerrymandering, aimed at concentrating the opposition's electorate in as few constituencies as possible.

``Elections to the Soviets shall be conducted by electoral commissions consisting of representatives of social organisations and work collectives, and of meetings of servicemen in military units" (Art. 101 of the Constitution of the USSR).

There exist three kinds of electoral commissions: (1) territorial (Central Commissions to elect the Supreme Soviets and territory, regional, autonomous area, district, town ward, township and rural commissions for elections to the corresponding local Soviets of People's Deputies); (2) district electoral commissions in constituencies, and (3) precinct commissions. No district electoral commissions have been created to elect township and rural Soviets, their functions being carried out by precinct electoral commissions.

The membership of Central Commissions to elect the Supreme Soviets is approved by the Presidiums of such Soviets, while that of other commissions, depending on the division, is approved by the Presidiums of the Supreme Soviets of Union or Autonomous republics, or by executive committees of local Soviets of People's Deputies. These bodies also pick the chairmen, deputy chairmen and secretaries of the electoral commissions.

The territorial commissions direct the process of organisation of elections to the respective Soviets: they oversee the activities of the district and precinct electoral commissions; monitor the material and technical support for the holding of elections; sum up the election results; register the deputies elected, etc. The most important powers of the district electoral commissions are those concerned with the registration of candidates nominated for election and the ascertainment of the election results in the respective constituency. The precinct electoral commissions make the lists of voters known to the constituency; they organise the voting procedure on election day, count the votes, etc.

The electoral commissions function publicly and are supervised by the electorate. They inform the 117 population of their seatings and decisions, as well as of their other activities. Their seatings are open to representatives of mass organisations and work collectives, and to representatives of the press, TV and radio services.

In other socialist countries as well, the bodies responsible for holding the elections are established democratically from among the electorate. In most cases, they are set up by National Fronts, all-inclusive associations.

In the capitalist countries, the holding of elections is, as a rule, entrusted to administrative officials or the judiciary.

The Constitution of the USSR (Art. 100) and the Constitutions of the Union and Autonomous republics stipulate that the following bodies shall have the right to nominate candidates to Soviets.- branches and organisations of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, trade unions, the Young Communist League; co-operatives and other social organisations; work collectives, and meetings of servicemen in their military units.

Candidates may be nominated by social organisations, on the national, district, city and ward levels. Firmly established in the USSR is a practice whereby candidates are nominated, in most cases, at general meetings of workers and other employees in enterprises and institutions; at general meetings in production units of state and collective farms, in villages and other rural populated localities; at meetings of servicemen in military units, i.e., in places where primary social organisations exist and where the prospective deputies are well-known.

The laws on elections to the Supreme Soviets envisage the possibility of holding district electoral conferences of representatives from social organisations, work collectives and servicemen's meetings to discuss the candidates nominated in the electoral district; the conferences, convened by the organs of social organisations, adopt decisions concerning the support of the nominees, make addresses and appeals to the voters, to social organisations and work collectives, and may elect their trusted representatives.

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The nominees who have given their consent to run for election in an electoral district are registered by the district electoral commissions, and their names are entered in ballot papers. Thereafter they are covered by the main guarantees stipulated by election laws (such as the right to address meetings and assemblies, the right to make free use of public transport facilities, etc.). Social organisations convene meetings of voters at their places of work or residence to acquaint them with the candidates.

At any time prior to election day, a social organisation, a work collective or a servicemen's meeting can cancel its decision to nominate a candidate-, likewise, the candidate himself can also withdraw from the election.

If, due to the non-availability of candidates for an election, no candidates are left in the electoral district, candidates are nominated anew. If needed, the election in the district is held within a month of the holding of the election to the particular Soviet.

In other socialist countries, the procedure for nominating candidates to elective bodies is democratic as well.

In the capitalist countries, candidates are, as a rule, nominated only by political parties, while the nomination of candidates by newly established or smaller parties is impeded by, for example, the requirement to pay an election deposit.

Elections in the USSR are organised in a manner that makes voter participation as convenient as possible. The voting takes place at polling stations established by the executive committees of the respective Soviets of People's Deputies on the basis, as a rule, of the territorial principle, i.e., near the voter's place of residence. Polling stations are also set up in military units, major railway terminals, airports, river and sea ports, polar stations on ships at sea, in hospitals and other health facilities. The voting is scheduled for non-working days for extended hours (from 6 a.m. to 10 p.m., local time). At the polling stations, the ballots are distributed, collected and counted by precinct electoral commissions.

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Candidates who have received absolute majorities of votes in their electoral districts are considered elected. The validity of their election is certified by corresponding representative bodies.

Soviet citizens also elect district (city) people's courts. The system of election of people's judges is basically similar to the system of election of deputies to the Soviets, in that, according to Art. 152 of the Constitution of the USSR and the relevant articles of the Constitutions of the Union and Autonomous republics, people's judges of district (city) people's courts are elected by the citizens of the district (city) on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot. People's assessors of the same courts are elected at meetings of citizens at their places of work or residence by show of hands.

Elections in the USSR are characterised by a high level of political involvement of the voters. As a rule, up to 100 per cent of all voters participate in the elections.

In capitalist countries, the electoral machinery is geared to exclude or artificially reduce the representation of the progressive forces in parliaments and local self-government bodies. This goal is attained, in particular, through the application of a majority E.S. or through the distortion of the proportional representation system where such a system has been introduced.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Electors' Mandates.

"Electors give mandates to their Deputies. The appropriate Soviets of People's Deputies shall examine electors' mandates, take them into account in drafting economic and social development plans and in drawing up the budget, organise implementation of the mandates, and inform citizens about it" (Art. 102 of the Constitution of the USSR). Similar articles are included in the Constitutions of the Union and Autonomous republics.

In accordance with this constitutional principle, in 1980 the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a Decree on Organisation of Work with Electors' Mandates. The Decree defines mandates as electors' instructions of social significance to their 120 Deputies, approved at election meetings. The aim of the assignments is to improve the activities of the Soviets of People's Deputies (q. v.) on the territory of their constituencies. Measures to fulfil mandates are taken publicly and with the active participation of People's Deputies (q. v.).

The institution of electors' mandates is a characteristic feature of socialist democracy; its aim is to guarantee the conformity of the activities of representative bodies of state power to the will and interests of the working people. During the term of their convocation, the Soviets usually fulfil from 700,000 to 800,000 E.M. After the 1980 elections to local Soviets, the executive committees carried out a general review of the E.M. given to Deputies. The plans for their implementation were approved at sessions of the Soviets. The total number of E.M., pertaining to production activities and social and cultural problems, and accepted for execution, was 796,000. A considerable share of the mandates was included in the plans for the economic and social development of cities, districts and regions. The population actively participated in their implementation. Many schools, medical and preschool children's facilities, residential houses, clubs, cinemas, and stores were built on the basis of E.M. Much was done to provide people with new amenities and to build and repair the road network.

In a number of socialist countries other than the USSR, the legislation also provides for E.M. The capitalist states' legislation, on the contrary, lacks such an institution, and, what is more, contains an outright ban on it in some cases. For example, under the fundamental law of the FRG, Bundestag deputies are not bound by any mandates or instructions and are guided only by their conscience.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Emblem, National

---see National Emblem of the USSR.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Equality of Rights

---see Socialist Democracy.

[121] __ALPHA_LVL1__ F __ALPHA_LVL2__ Flag, National

---see National Flag of the USSR.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Foreign Nationals.

Foreign nationals and stateless persons residing in the USSR shall be guaranteed the rights and freedoms provided by the law... (Art. 37 of the Constitution of the USSR).

Within the framework of large-scale development of political, economic and cultural relations between the USSR and other countries, large numbers of foreigners come to the USSR both on brief visits and for longer terms (for study, work, etc.). In the USSR, the legislation on the legal status of foreign nationals consists of the Law on the Legal Status of F.N. in the USSR (adopted in June, 1981) and other legislative acts of the USSR, which determine, in accordance with the Soviet Constitution, the legal status of F.N. The Union Republic's legislation resolves all questions pertaining to the legal status of F.N. placed within its terms of reference by the USSR legislation and the Constitution of the Union Republic. The legal status of F.N. can also be determined on the basis of international treaties.

F.N. in the USSR enjoy the same rights and freedoms and have the same responsibilities as citizens of the USSR, unless the Constitution of the USSR, the USSR Law on the Legal Status of Foreign Nationals in the USSR or other Soviet legislative acts stipulate otherwise.

F.N. in the USSR are equal before the law without distinction of origin, social or property status, race or nationality, sex, education, language, attitude to religion, type and nature of occupation and other status. With respect to nationals of states wherein special restrictions of rights and freedoms of Soviet citizens exist, the Council of Ministers of the USSR may introduce retaliatory restrictions. The enjoyment by F.N. in the USSR of their rights and freedoms should be without detriment to the interests of the Soviet society and the state, the rights and lawful interests of citizens of the USSR and other persons.

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F.N. permanently residing in the USSR may work as industrial workers and other employees at enterprises, institutions and organisations or be engaged in other jobs under the same conditions and regulations as citizens of the USSR. F.N. staying in the USSR temporarily can be engaged in labour activity in the USSR if this is compatible with the purposes of their stay in the Soviet Union. The legislation fixes certain limitations as regards the appointment of foreign nationals to certain offices (e.g., that of ship's master) or the engagement in certain labour activities.

F.N. in permanent residence in the USSR, like citizens of the USSR, have the rights to rest and leisure, to health protection, education, social security, to the allotment of housing, to enjoy cultural benefits, and the right to join social organisations. They are guaranteed freedom of conscience. Foreign nationals temporarily staying in the USSR are rendered medical care in the manner established by the USSR Ministry of Health, while their right to social security is exercised on the grounds and in the manner established by USSR legislation.

F.N. in the USSR may own a house and other property, inherit and bequeath property, be granted copyrights on works of science, literature and art, and have other property and personal non-property rights. F.N. have the right to apply to courts of law and other state bodies for the protection of their personal, property, family, and other rights. They are guaranteed the immunity of their person and the inviolability of the home.

F.N. in the USSR may enter and dissolve marriages with Soviet citizens or with other persons in accordance with Soviet legislation.

F.N. in the USSR may not vote or be elected to Soviets or other elective state bodies, or participate in popular vote (referendum) (q. v.). They have no obligation for military service in the ranks of the Armed Forces of the USSR. Restrictions on the movement and place of residence of F.N. are permissible if required for the maintenance of state security, the protection of public order, health and moral standards 123 of the population and the protection of rights and lawful interests of citizens of the USSR and other persons.

Nationals of their countries, when in the USSR, are obliged to respect the Constitution of the USSR and observe Soviet laws, and to treat with respect the rules of socialist community life, the traditions and customs of the Soviet people. Foreign nationals committing crimes, or administrative or other violations in the territory of the USSR are liable to the same punishment as citizens of the USSR. Foreigners who violate the legislation on the legal status of F.N. in the USSR may have the term of their authorised stay in the USSR reduced. If the activities of F.N. violate the interests of state security (q. v.), public order (q. v.), or represent a gross violation of Soviet legislation, such nationals may be expelled from the USSR.

The status of F.N. in a socialist country is radically different from the position of aliens in the capitalist countries, where gross violations of human rights occur, as evidenced primarily by the situation of foreign workers in a number of developed capitalist states. These workers, as a rule, hold the most strenuous and unskilled jobs and are paid the lowest wages; they are also deprived of many benefits enjoyed by the nationals of their host countries.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Foreign Policy.

"The USSR steadfastly pursues a Leninist policy of peace and stands for strengthening the security of nations and broad international cooperation,'' reads Art. 28 of the Constitution.

For the first time, the Fundamental Law of the Soviet state has included a chapter on foreign policy. This is the result of the high moral authority the Soviet Union has gained and the country's influence on international affairs. Together with the other countries of the socialist community, the USSR plays a beneficial role in settling urgent international problems. This is also determined by the fact that today the internal and external factors of development of socialist society are more closely interwoven than ever. The Constitution of the USSR states that, aware of their international duty and taking into account the USSR's 124 international situation as part of the world socialist system the Soviet people affirm the principles of the social structure and policy of the USSR. Apart from the chapter on foreign policy, the Constitution also includes a number of articles regulating the activities of the USSR in the world arena.

The foreign policy provisions made by the Soviet Constitution clearly reveal that the ideals of the October Revolution and the principles developed by Lenin are being steadily implemented in the policy of the Soviet Union. In this respect, there is continuity between the previous Soviet Constitutions and the Constitution of 1977. The USSR has acquired experience from its previous constitutions and has updated its most recent document to meet the requirements of the modern epoch.

Above all, the 1977 Constitution confirms the loyalty of the USSR to the principle of a just democratic peace first proclaimed in Lenin's Decree on Peace.

The Constitution specifies "ensuring international conditions favourable for building communism in the USSR'', and "safeguarding the state interests of the Soviet Union" as major directions in Soviet F.P. Of course, this cannot be accomplished without lasting peace.

According to the Constitution, Soviet F.P. is aimed at "preventing wars of aggression, achieving universal and complete disarmament, and consistently implementing the principle of the peaceful coexistence of states with different social systems''. Thanks to the work done by the Soviet Union and other socialist states, certain progressive changes were achieved in all these fields, the most important of all being detente. The Detente of the 1970s confirmed and made more concrete the forms of peaceful coexistence between states with different social systems (q. v.). A foundation was built for developing peaceful cooperation between the states, the more dangerous hotbeds of war were extinguished, objective prerequisites evolved for a just peaceful settlement of disputes and international conflicts, and a number of channels of the arms race blocked (see Disarmament). For a whole 125 decade, international relations were governed by detente, and this was to a large extent the result of the efforts of the Soviet Union, other socialist countries, and all realistically-minded forces in the world.

Today, when imperialism has sharply stepped up its activities towards undermining detente and the arms race has been accelerated to an unprecedented degree, the USSR continues its course towards settling international problems through talks conducted along the principles of equality and equal security of the sides. This is the purpose of the peaceful initiatives set forth by the 27th CPSU Congress which are a natural continuation of the Peace Programme and an attempt to solve the most urgent and complex problems in the current international situation. In the interests of all peoples, the Soviet Union has proposed to start curtailing nuclear weapons in Europe and the world over.

In the early 1980s, military preparations by the USA and NATO reached record dimensions. Attempts were made to instill in the people the idea that a ``limited'' or ``protracted'' nuclear war was possible. The position of the Soviet Union in this matter is unequivocal: a nuclear war, be it ``limited'' or not, must be avoided at all costs. The USSR has unilaterally assumed an obligation not to be the first to use nuclear weapons, and set forth a number of constructive proposals aimed at limiting and reducing strategic arms, and all nuclear stockpiles in Europe.

The 27th Congress of the CPSU put forth an integral programme for the complete elimination of weapons of mass destruction by the year 2000. The Soviet Union submitted its proposals not only through the traditional diplomatic channels, but by appealing directly to the nations of the world. The socialist countries unconditionally reject war as a means of resolving international political, economic and ideological disputes. A world without weapons and violence, one in which every people freely chooses its road of development and way of life is the ideal of socialism.

The Soviet peace policy is coordinated with the policies of other socialist countries. One of its objectives is to consolidate the position of world socialism. 126 A great deal of experience has been accumulated by the socialist community in all the fields of cooperation, including coordination of actions in the world arena. Such cooperation has become a sort of a natural norm for each socialist country and has been made legal by numerous agreements and treaties, above all, in bilateral agreements on friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance, and in the Warsaw Treaty.

In January 1983, at a session of the Political Consultative Committee, the Warsaw Treaty member-states came forward with a new peaceful proposal: they offered to conclude a treaty on the non-use of military force and on the maintenance of peaceful relations between the Warsaw Treaty nations and NATO memberstates.

The Fundamental Law of the USSR confirms the obligation of the Soviet Union to develop relations with other fraternal socialist countries on the basis of principles worked out on a collective basis.

The internationalist nature of the socialist system determined the constitutional provision which states that Soviet P.P. is aimed at "supporting the struggle of peoples for national liberation and social progress''. The USSR has adhered to this policy ever since the October Revolution. Even the First Soviet Constitution--- the Constitution of the RSFSR adopted in 1918---- announced "a complete rupture with the barbarous policy of bourgeois civilisation, which was building the prosperity of exploiters in a few chosen nations on the enslavement of hundreds of millions of working people in Asia, in colonies in general, and in smaller states''. Steadily pursuing this policy, the Soviet Union and the other socialist countries succeeded in having colonialism condemned and recognised as unlawful at the international level, i.e. in the UN Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples adopted in 1960.

The Soviet Union has welcomed the abolition of the colonial system of imperialism and is rendering extensive support to the struggle of the peoples in newlyfree countries for complete national liberation and social progress, acting always within the generally 127 accepted norms and principles of international law (see Support for the Struggle of Peoples for National Liberation and Social Progress).

Having made peaceful P.P. a supreme law, the Soviet state is unswervingly and consistently implementing its key principles in practice.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Forfeiting Citizenship of the USSR

---see Citizenship of the USSR.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Fundamentals of Legislation of the USSR and Union Republics.

"The jurisdiction of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as represented by its highest bodies of state authority and administration shall cover ... the ensurance of uniformity of legislative norms throughout the USSR and establishment of the fundamentals of the legislation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Union Republics" (Art. 73 of the Constitution of the USSR).

The right to establish fundamentals of legislation by the highest bodies of state authority arose simultaneously with the formation of the USSR. Essentially it defines the scope and limits of the USSR's jurisdiction in regulating social relationships.

The USSR exercises its right to establish fundamentals of legislation primarily in the form of issuing major laws in different spheres of legislation which are usually referred to as fundamentals of the legislation of the USSR and Union republics. In the spheres in which the USSR issues fundamentals of legislation, the republics normally issue codes, i.e., laws which are designed to regulate social relationships in a detailed and comprehensive manner. With the help of fundamentals of legislation the USSR regulates those relations and their aspects which call for uniform treatment over the whole of the Soviet territory. The codes and other laws of the republics use the fundamentals of legislation as a basis, out also take into account the national and other special characteristics of the republic in question.

After Union republics adopt corresponding codes, the fundamentals of legislation of the USSR do not become inoperative as independent legislative acts but 128 remain in effect as acts of legislation of the USSR. However, for practical extents and purposes, they operate through codes and other laws of Union republics. In cases where codes and other laws of the Union republics permit deviation from the standards of the fundamentals of legislation of the USSR, the fundamentals prevail over acts of the republics by force of the priority of the Union legislation.

The Supreme Soviet of the USSR has adopted 16 laws entitled Fundamentals of Legislation of the USSR and Union Republics since 1958. These are fundamentals of labour legislation, on education, public health, marriage and family, mineral resources, land, water, forest and housing; legislation on administrative offences, the judicial system, civil and criminal procedure; and fundamentals of civil, criminal and corrective labour legislation. The Fundamentals do not exhaust the entire legislation in the country, which also includes other legislative acts and decisions of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. Codes in Union republics (with the exception of criminal codes which include all the provisions of criminal law in republics) are adopted in a similar manner.

The issuing of Fundamentals of Legislation is not the only way in which the USSR exercises its power to define fundamentals of legislation. The USSR can determine fundamentals of legislation by issuing other laws as well as other legislative acts (q. v.), and acts of the Council of Ministers of the USSR.

__PRINTERS_P_129_COMMENT__ 9---1192 [129] __ALPHA_LVL1__ G __ALPHA_LVL2__ Guarantees of the Citizens' Basic Rights and Freedoms,

i.e., political, economic and legal means of securing the citizens' basic rights and freedoms. The presence of reliable G. of C.'s B.R. and F. is one of the more important features distinguishing Soviet socialist democracy from bourgeois democracy, and a condition of the former's successful development.

Political guarantees include concentration of state authority in the hands of the people, the democratic manner of its organisation and functioning, and the opportunity enjoyed by the citizens of the USSR to take part in managing the affairs of the society and state.

Economic guarantees are secured by the USSR's economic system based on socialist ownership of the means of production and the planned and balanced character of the economy, whose main aim is to meet the growing material, cultural and intellectual needs of Soviet people.

Legal guarantees are the sum total of legal norms which ensure that the citizens of the USSR are able to exercise their constitutional rights and obtain legal protection should the exercise of these rights be obstructed.

The combined functioning of these guarantees is ensured by the socialist system.

[130] __ALPHA_LVL1__ H __ALPHA_LVL2__ Harmonious Development of the Individual.

"In accordance with the communist ideal---'The free development of each is the condition of the free development of all'---the state pursues the aim of giving citizens more and more real opportunities to apply their creative energies, abilities, and talents, and to develop their personalities in every way" (Art. 20).

The H.D. of the I. is one of the chief objectives in building socialism and communism set forth by the Party Programme.

Marx believed that encouraging people to develop and use all their abilities would also promote the growth of production. In a socialist society, which is characterised, above all, by public ownership of the means of production, man's development as a harmonious individual is an ongoing process. This is an attainable goal because socialism sets man free from exploitation and oppression, and provides the necessary economic, social, moral and other" conditions for his harmonious advance.

A mature socialist society offers particularly good opportunities for man's H.D. In recent years this objective has become a major goal of the Communist Party and the Soviet state: it is included in the longterm economic, scientific, technological and social programmes and reflected in new Soviet legislation, in the Constitution of the USSR (1977) and in the Constitutions of the Union and Autonomous republics.

The USSR Constitution has established the ultimate goal of social production under socialism: to meet, to the fullest possible extent, the people's growing material, cultural and intellectual requirements. For the first time at the constitutional level the whole people's state has set down its major social goals: the drawing together of the classes and social groups comprising Soviet society; the maximum advance and closer union between all nations and nationalities of the USSR; a higher standard of living for the people; the advance of education and culture;snorter working hours-, a sensible use of leisure, etc. The H.D. of the I. is also guaranteed 131 by the rights and freedoms the Soviet people enjoy and by their steady expansion.

Along with providing the necessary objective conditions, a major contribution to this cause is being made by the Party's educational work aimed at helping the people acquire a communist world outlook, morals and principles---a blend of knowledge, convictions and practical activity. The method used by the Party in its educational activities is a comprehensive approach to education, i.e. emphasis on the need to combine ideological and political, labour and moral education with due regard to the characteristic features of various population groups.

Since it is man's professional activities that contribute most to his H.D. and since it is through work that he evolves his abilities, forms an active attitude in life, and acquires moral principles, the Party and state are doing their best to make labour more challenging, rewarding and creative.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Housing.

"Citizens of the USSR have aright to housing.

``This right is ensured by the development and upkeep of state and socially-owned housing; by assistance for cooperative and individual house building; by fair distribution, under social control, of the housing that becomes available through fulfilment of the programme of building well-appointed dwellings, and by low rents and low charges for utility services. Citizens of the USSR shall take good care of the housing allocated to them" (Art. 44 of the USSR Constitution).

Every year more and more people are moving into a new housing in the Soviet Union. Towns and villages are growing, and housing conditions are improving with every passing year. This is one of the more striking manifestations of the concern of the state and the Party for the welfare of the Soviet people. In 1966--81, approximately 1.6 billion square metres of housing was built. In 1981--1985, over ten million flats, or 552 million square metres of housing, were built. At present, about 80 per cent of city dwellers live in individual flats. Every day 5,600 new flats are built. The standard of housing construction is constantly on the 132 upgrade and flats are made more comfortable. The implemented principle is to give each family an individual flat.

The Fundamentals on the Housing Legislation in the USSR and Union republics define the requirements to be met by dwellings, the structure of the housing stock, (q. v.) and the rules of its distribution.

Citizens of the USSR receive for permanent use living accommodations in state- or socially-owned houses. Rents and utility service charges are very low, amounting on the average to 3 per cent of a working-class family's income. Citizens contribute only one-third of the means spent by the state on the building and maintenance of housing and on utility services. It should be noted that in most capitalist countries, the rent and utilities consume about a quarter of a worker's wages.

Citizens needing to improve their living conditions are registered, as a rule, at their place of residence by the Executive Committee of local Soviets of People's Deputies. If an enterprise or organisation builds its own housing stock, it also has a list of employees entitled to better housing, including those who are retired. Control over these lists is maintained by the Executive Committees of local Soviets. Rules exist regulating the order of the distribution of housing. Priority right to the improvement of living conditions is granted to disabled veterans of the Great Patriotic War and the families of servicemen killed or lost in combat, Heroes of the Soviet Union, Heroes of Socialist Labour, and a number of other categories of persons specified by the law.

The living accommodations citizens receive must be up to the standards prevailing in a given town or rural area and meet technical and sanitary requirements. In the temporary absence of a person, his housing is reserved for him. If an individual works abroad or in the Far North of the country, his housing is reserved for him for the whole period of his stay on the job. Persons obliged by their labour contract to live at their place of work or near it may be given a service flat which is to be vacated if the work contract is broken.

Citizens are lodged at hostels while working in temporary jobs or studying.

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``Citizens of the USSR are guaranteed inviolability of the home. No one may, without lawful grounds, enter a home against the will of those residing in it" (Art. 55).

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Housing Stock.

The USSR Constitution stresses that the right of citizens to housing (q. v.) is ensured by a number of guarantees, including the development and upkeep of state and socially-owned housing and assistance for cooperative and individual house building (see Art. 44).

H.S. includes all apartment houses located in the territory of the USSR, as well as living quarters in other buildings (e.g., schools, hospitals, etc.). The H.S. comprises:

the state housing stock (apartment houses and living quarters in other buildings belonging to the state). The state H.S. is managed by local Soviets of Peoples' Deputies (the H.S. of local Soviets), ministries, state committees and departments of state administration (the departmental H.S.). The latter includes apartment houses and other living quarters built by state enterprises, institutions and organisations or given over to them in the order established by law. This H.S. is used mostly for improving the living conditions of factory and office workers employed at a given enterprise. In conformity with the decisions of the CPSU and the Soviet Government, and the Fundamentals of the Housing Legislation of the USSR and Union republics, the departmental H.S. in towns and urban-type villages is to be gradually handed over to local Soviets;

the socially-owned H.S. includes apartment houses and living quarters in other buildings belonging to collective farms and other cooperative organisations, and to trade unions and other social organisations;

the H.S. of house-building cooperatives; cooperative house-building began on a particularly grand scale in the early 1960s (see Individual Housing Construction). Today the housing space available for house-building cooperatives has considerably increased. The state renders the cooperatives material and technical assistance and extends bank credits to them;

134

the individual H.S. (houses which are the personal property of citizens under Art. 13 of the Constitution).

In the years of the existence of the Soviet state 3.5 billion square metres of floor space have been constructed in the country, including 2 billion square metres of state and socially-owned housing and housebuilding cooperatives.

The urban socialised H.S. is, as a rule, well-- appointed: 89 per cent of all flats have running water, 87 per cent---sewage, 86 per cent---central heating, and 79 per cent---gas supply.

Housing construction in rural areas is considered to be very important in the USSR, and it will be extended, mostly by constructing well-appointed houses of the homestead type and outbuildings (see Individual Housing Construction).

In the early 1980s the value of the fixed assets in housing amounted to 339 billion roubles, i.e. almost one-fifth of all the country's fixed assets.

To manage the H.S. of local Soviets, housing boards (departments) have been set up within District, City (Town), Regional, and Territorial Soviets of People's Deputies. In addition, large cities have independent departments for registering and distributing housing. The departmental H.S. is managed by housing and utilities departments set up at enterprises and organisations. Socially-owned housing is managed by bodies of cooperatives and social organisations.

Management bodies of the state and socially-owned H.S. supervise house management offices which are self-supporting organisations (whose duty it is to ensure tnat housing is kept in good repair and is sensibly used, and tnat tenants observe the rules of the use of dwellings and maintain their living quarters and premises). The state highlights the better use, maintenance and preservation of housing. The USSR Council of Ministers has recently adopted decisions On Measures Towards Better Use and Repair of Housing (1978), and On Measures to Reduce the Loss of Heat in Dwellings, Public and Office Buildings, and the Heating Systems (1979), which have helped to settle important issues of housing development. Allocations for the 135 maintenance of housing are steadily increasing (in 1940, they amounted to 100 million roubles, and in 1980, to over 4 billion roubles).

Art. 44 of the USSR Constitution establishes that "citizens of the USSR shall take good care of the housing allocated to them''. Persons who fail to observe the terms of occupancy of apartment houses and other dwellings, carry out unauthorised rebuilding, or use housing not according to purpose, bear criminal or administrative responsibility, or are liable to fines.

Under the 12th Five-Year Plan, available housing will continue to grow, and measures will be taken to improve the use and maintenance of housing.

[136] __ALPHA_LVL1__ I __ALPHA_LVL2__ Individual Housing Construction.

Under Art. 13 of the USSR Constitution, the personal property of citizens may include a house. The state can grant citizens, in the manner prescribed by the law, the use of plots of land for I.H.C. It also assists citizens in the building of these houses, in their repair and improvement.

According to the Fundamentals of Civil Legislation, only one house may be personal property of a Soviet citizen (spouses in joint residence and their children under age may also have only one house).

The current legislation and the Model CollectiveFarm Rules stipulate that the collective farmer's family (collective-farm household) may own a house and household buildings. The state provides incentives for I.H.C., which develops mostly in rural areas and urban-type settlements. For the purpose, the state extends bank credits and loans to citizens, provides them with building materials and allots plots of land.

A collective-farm member is entitled to collectivefarm assistance in the building and repair of his house and in obtaining fuel. The legislation of the USSR and of the Union republics lays down the conditions of purchase or individual construction of houses, their maximum size, the procedure for the conclusion of lease contracts in such houses, the payment of rent, the bequest of dwelling houses, and so on.

Permission to build individual standardised houses is granted by the Executive Committees of city and township Soviets. State inspectorates are charged with monitoring the adherence to the rules of maintenance of houses and adjacent plots.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Individual Labour.

"In the USSR, the law permits individual labour in handicrafts, farming, the provision of services for the public, and other forms of activity based exclusively on the personal work of individual citizens and members of their families.'' (Art. 17 of the Constitution of the USSR).

I.L. is a variety of socially useful labour (q. v.) by citizens outside the framework of state-owned or 137 cooperative enterprises with implements and devices owned by citizens as personal property.

Under the Statute on Handicrafts, handicraft permits are issued by finance departments of district or city Soviets of People's Deputies to citizens at their place of residence for one-year term. Handicrafts and sales of manufactured articles are allowed within the limits of the district or city where the citizen resides, and in the nearest district, regional or territory centres. Income derived from this activity is subject to taxation according to the procedure and in amounts provided by current legislation. To protect public interests, some crafts are prohibited (e.g., the manufacture and repair of weapons, food processing, making medicines, etc.). Also prohibited are the use of hired labour and the transfer of registration cards to other persons.

The Fundamentals of Land Legislation of the USSR and of the Union republics (1968) allow for the existence of individual peasant husbandries, for which land plots are allotted within the limits established by the legislation of the Union republics. An individual household may include draught animals (with the permission of the Executive Committee of a Regional or Territory Soviet of People's Deputies or the Council of Ministers of an Autonomous Republic) and agricultural implements required for the cultivation of allotted land plots. The legal regime of ownership of the individual peasant small holdings is regulated by the Civil Codes of the Union Republics.

Citizens engaged in individual agricultural production are obliged to pay taxes, the rate of which is established by current legislation; they are not entitled to pensions or temporary disability benefits.

According to the republican regulations of hunting, in areas where hunting is permitted citizens have the right to hunt regardless of whether they hold membership in a hunters' society, provided a state duty is paid and a contract is concluded with a purchase organisation for the sale of their hunting products at fixed prices.

The state regulates I.L. "to ensure that it serves the interests of society" (Art. 17 of the Constitution of 138 the USSR). This constitutional rule represents a legal guarantee of citizens' ability to apply their labour not only within the system of social production but also in the individual sphere. It promotes the development of individual economic initiative while simultaneously imposes clearcut restrictions against the use of hired labour and the infringement of public interests.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Initiation of Legislation.

"The right to initiate legislation in the Supreme Soviet of the USSR is vested in the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Council of Ministers or the USSR, Union Republics through their highest bodies of state authority, commissions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and standing committees of its chambers, Deputies of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Supreme Court of the USSR, and the Procurator-General of the USSR.

``The right to initiate legislation is also vested in social organisations through their Ail-Union bodies" (Art. 113).

Legislation is initiated by submitting for consideration a bill or any other normative act of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, or a proposal to develop and adopt such an act to the highest body of State authority.

Art. 39 of the Standing Order of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR states that bills, draft decisions and other acts submitted for consideration to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR are directed, together with the grounds for their advancement, to the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet and, during sessions, may also be directed to the Chairman of the Soviet of the Union and the Chairman of the Soviet of Nationalities. If a bill is directed to one of the chambers, its Chairman is obliged to forward a copy of the bill to the other chamber.

Initiation of legislation is thus the first stage in the development and adoption of a law (q. v.) by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Integral Economic Complex.

"The economy of the 139 USSR is an integral economic complex comprising all the elements of social production, distribution, and exchange on its territory" (Art. 16 of the Constitution of the USSR).

Elaborating economic policy and strategy, the CPSU defines the principal directions and the concrete objectives of the USSR's economic development. The socialist state, as represented by its highest bodies of state authority and administration, ensures that a uniform social and economic policy is pursued and economic guidance carried out on the basis of state plans for economic and social development (q. v.) with due consideration for branch and territorial principles.

Centralised planning which embraces the whole of the I.E.C. makes it possible to concentrate material and human resources on top priority matters in the economic and cultural fields, to efficiently utilise the advantages of socialism, the potentialities of concentration of production and socialist division of labour and rational distribution of the country's productive forces.

For the country to develop as an I.E.C. it is important that the state define the main directions of scientific and technical progress and pursue a uniform technological policy, and that a great range and variety of economic levers and incentives (q. v.) can be used.

The state drafts and approves the consolidated National Budget of the USSR (q. v.), manages a single monetary and credit system, and formulates a wage and price policy.

Trie Soviet economy is functioning smoothly as an I.E.C. thanks to the consolidation of the material and technological basis of the branches and enterprises which have ail-Union significance, to the establishment of large territorial-production complexes, and to the development of the infrastructure.

In establishing and strengthening the I.E.C., the Communist Party was guided by Lenin's national policy, stressing priority development of regions which formerly had a lower level of development of productive forces. As a result, in the years after the October Revolution the level of economic development of backward regions and republics was raised to 140 that of the more advanced ones. Their economies have now become a constituent part of the I.E.C., each occupying a place of importance in the national division of labour.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Integral, Federal, Multinational State.

"The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is an integral, federal, multinational state formed on the principle of socialist federalism as a result of the free self-determination of nations and the voluntary association of equal Soviet Socialist Republics.

``The USSR embodies the state unity of the Soviet people and draws all its nations and nationalities together for the purpose of jointly building communism" (Art. 70 of the USSR Constitution).

The plan for establishing a state formed by a voluntary association of equal republics was set and developed by Lenin. The close unity of the peoples who were liberated from exploitation by the October Revolution was instrumental in defending the gains of the Revolution and achieving the victory of socialism in the country. Lenin's idea was supported by the Party and the peoples of all republics, and on December 30,1922, at the First Ail-Union Congress of Soviets, the formation of the federal state, the USSR, was proclaimed.

The establishment of such a state, with state authority concentrated in the hands of the Soviets, has multiplied the strength of all the republics comprising it and allowed its nations and nationalities to overcome economic and cultural backwardness. This was a major political objective of the Leninist Party.

In the years that have passed since the formation of the USSR, an intergral economic complex (q. v.) embracing the economies of all Soviet republics and based on socialist ownership of the means of production has been built and consolidated.

Political unity of the Soviet people contributes to the strengthening of the USSR's economic foundation, greater social homogeneity of the population, and their closer cultural and intellectual cohesion. This unity has been made possible by the shared goals and interests of all Soviet people, the growing role of Party leadership 141 in the life of Soviet society, and the consolidation of the unbreakable union of the workers, farmers and intelligentsia---the three strata forming the social foundation of the USSR.

An important indicator of the steadily growing unity of the nations and nationalities living in the USSR was the emergence of a new historical, social and international community---the Soviet people (q. v.). The definition of the USSR as an I.F.M.S. conveys the state unity of the Soviet socialist nations, and the invincibility of the USSR as the stronghold of the fraternity of free peoples who have come together of their own free will. At present, the USSR is a state federation of 15 sovereign Union republics which include 20 Autonomous republics, 8 Autonomous regions, and 10 Autonomous areas.

As an I.F.M.S., the USSR has a Constitution, a single territory over which its sovereignty extends, a uniform federal citizenship, an overall federal system of higher bodies of state authority and administration, and Armed Forces. Laws of the USSR have equal force in all Union republics.

The jurisdiction of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, as represented by its highest bodies of state authority and administration, covers matters which touch on the interests of the USSR as a whole and cannot therefore be dealt with by individual Union Republics (Art. 73).

In the economic, social and cultural fields, the USSR as represented by its highest bodies of state authority and administration, pursues a uniform social and economic policy; directs the country's economy; determines the main lines of scientific and technological advancement and the more general measures towards rational exploitation and conservation of natural resources; drafts and approves state plans for the economic and social development of the USSR, and endorses reports on their fulfilment; drafts and approves the consolidated Budget of the USSR, and endorses the report on its execution; manages a single monetary and credit system; determines the taxes and revenues forming the State Budget of the USSR; 142 formulates a wage and price policy; directs the sectors of the economy and enterprises and amalgamations under Union jurisdiction, and directs, in a more general way, industries under Union-republican jurisdiction.

In the field of foreign policy and defence of the Socialist Motherland, the jurisdiction of the USSR covers: representation of the USSR in international relations; the USSR's relations with other states and with international organisations; establishment of the general procedure for, and co-ordination of, the relations of Union republics with other states and with international organisations; foreign trade and other forms of external economic activity on the basis of state monopoly; issues of war and peace, defence of the sovereignty (q. v.) of the USSR and the safeguarding of its borders and territory (q. v.) and organisation of defence; direction of the Armed Forces of the USSR (q. v.); ensuring state security (q. v.).

In matters pertaining to state building and legislation, the jurisdiction of the USSR extends to: the admission of new Union republics to the USSR; endorsement of the formation of new Autonomous republics and Autonomous regions within Union republics, establishment of general principles for the organisation and functioning of republican and local bodies of state authority and administration; the ensurance of uniformity of legislative norms throughout the USSR and establishment of the fundamentals of the legislation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Union republics; control over abidance by the Constitution of the USSR, and ensurance of conformity of the Constitutions of Union republics to the Constitution of the USSR; determination of the state boundaries of the USSR and approval of changes in the boundaries between Union republics. In addition, the USSR may settle other matters of all-Union importance.

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics has its own state symbols: the National Emblem of the USSR (q. v.), the National Flag of the USSR (q. v.), the National Anthem of the USSR (q. v.) and the capital of the USSR (q.v.).

143 __ALPHA_LVL2__ Intelligentsia.

Under the Constitution of the USSR (Art. 19), the intelligentsia, together with the workers and peasants, make up the unbreakable alliance which is the social basis of the USSR (q. v.).

The I. is a social stratum of Soviet society professionally involved in mental and for the most part creative work, and the development and popularisation of science and culture. It comprises engineers, technicians, scientists, men of letters, artists, educators, doctors and managers. The intelligentsia is composed of different groups, differing as to the degree of creativity of their work, their skill levels and other factors. As the scientific and technological revolution progresses, the professional and skill level structure of the Soviet intelligentsia becomes increasingly diversified.

The Soviet I. is not socially isolated, maintaining as it does a close everyday relationship with the workers and peasants. As the vast majority of those joining it come from the masses of the workers and peasants the intelligentsia, jointly with the workers and peasnts, devote all their creative energy to the improvement of socialist society. Thus, in the process of building developed socialism the alliance of the working class and the collective-farm peasantry evolved into a firm political and ideological unity of these two classes with the people's intelligentsia, whose creative effort now enjoys unprecedented public recognition.

The intelligentsia is the fastest expanding group among the Soviet working people. This increase in the size of the intelligentsia is a result of Party policy aimed at accelerating scientific and technological progress by all means and at raising the cultural and educational level of working people. In 1926, fewer than 3 million people in the USSR were engaged primarily in mental work. In 1985 their numbers exceeded 42 million. Today, one out of every four gainfully employed persons is preoccupied primarily with mental work. The intelligentsia plays an exceedingly important role not only in science, education and culture but also in production, in the entire life of the Soviet society. Currently, one of the basic means of accelerating scientific and technological progress in the 144 USSR is the existence of competent experts and economic managers and of a powerful scientific and intellectual potential, the productivity of which is increasing in significance.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Interpretation of Laws.

In conformity with Art. 121, clause 5 of the USSR Constitution, "the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR shall ... interpret the laws of the USSR''.

A law (q. v.) is interpreted by issuing a decree (q. v.) or decision. It conveys the will of the state imposed on the participants in social relations---those who enjoy the rights granted by the law, bear the responsibility it places on them, and apply the law to specific relations.

The official interpretation of a law may be normative, i.e., have a general content like the law itself, or non-normative, i.e., relate to individual cases and situations covered by the given law which occurred before an act of interpretation was promulgated.

While drafting the acts interpreting laws, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (or of a Union Republic) uses all available theoretically and practically developed means (methods) through which the meaning of the law (grammatical, logical, systematic, etc.) can be clarified; the interpretation of the law's verbal form may be literal, limited or extended.

When interpreting a law, the USSR Supreme Soviet Presidium explains the will conveyed by the law, drawing upon an analysis of prepared materials, the materials produced by the discussion of the bill in the USSR Supreme Soviet, the reasons and objectives of the promulgation of the law, its place within the legal system, the correlation of its norms with the norms prevailing in the given branch of law.

Only in rare instances has the USSR Supreme Soviet Presidium been obliged to interpret a law. This is due to the high legal and technical standard of laws, the simplicity and clarity of their language and style, their well-considered structure and their clearly defined place among other laws.

[145] __ALPHA_LVL1__ J __ALPHA_LVL2__ Justice

in the USSR is administered only by the courts, Art. 151 of the Constitution of the USSR, and only by those which are enumerated in the country's Fundamental Law.

J. can be defined as the consideration and settlement by the courts of civil and criminal cases using procedures defined by law.

Soviet socialist J. is called upon to protect the following from all encroachments: the social, political and economic system of the USSR as proclaimed in the Constitution of the USSR; the socio-economic, political and personal rights and freedoms of citizens, proclaimed in and affirmed by the Constitution of the USSR and Soviet laws; the rights and legitimate interests of state enterprises, institutions, organisations, collective farms, other cooperative organisations and their amalgamations, and other social organisations. J. in the USSR is aimed at the all-round consolidation of socialist legality (q. v.), law and order (q. v.), and at preventing crime and other offences.

Soviet J. rests on genuinely democratic principles, which have been further elaborated in the 1977 Constitution of the USSR.

All courts in the USSR are formed on the principle of the electiveness of judges and people's assessors. For the first time the Constitution defines the procedure for the election of judges and people's assessors of military tribunals.

Socialist democracy's principle of responsibility and accountability of elective bodies and officials to their electors, and the responsibility and accountability of all state bodies to corresponding Soviets of People's Deputies has been extended to the courts. The Constitution stipulates that judges and people's assessors are responsible and accountable to their electors or the bodies that elected them, must report to them, and may be recalled by them in the manner prescribed by law (Art. 152). At the same time, electiveness and accountability of the courts do not lead to the establishment of control over the administration of J. in 146 specific cases. The 1977 Constitution supplements the constitutional principle of judges' independence (they are subject only to the law) by similar guarantees with respect to people's assessors.

The democratic character of Soviet J. has also been reflected in the new constitutional principle which states that in the administration of justice people's assessors have all the rights of a judge. The Constitution has affirmed the principle of collegiality in the administration of J., stating that the hearing of civil and criminal cases in all courts is collegial, and in courts of first instance cases are heard with the participation of people's assessors (Art. 154).

The consistently democratic character of Soviet J. is also manifested in the guarantees enjoyed by citizens when courts hear cases concerning their rights and legitimate interests. Equality of the citizens of the USSR, affirmed by the 1936 USSR Constitution, has also been reflected in judicial activities. The 1977 Constitution of the USSR has given legal force to the practice which had evolved on the basis of the existing Soviet judicial system, including the courts' activities, and which guarantees the administration of justice in the USSR on the principle of the equality of citizens before the law and the court (Art. 156), without distinction of their origin, social or property status, race or nationality, sex, education, attitude to religion, type and nature of occupation, place of residence, etc.

The new Constitution has further specified the earlier regulations dealing with the language in which legal procedure (q. v.) is held. It affirms that judicial proceedings are held not only in the language of the Union republic, Autonomous republic and Autonomous region, but also in the language of the Autonomous area, or in the language spoken by the majority of the people in the locality (Art. 159).

Greater openness and publicity (q. v.) are central to the further development of socialist democracy. With this in mind, the earlier constitutional principle of open proceedings in all courts has been supplemented by a clear provision that hearings in camera are only __PRINTERS_P_149_COMMENT__ 10* 147 allowed in cases provided for by the law, with observance of all the rules of judicial procedure (Art. 157).

Along with the important provision of guaranteeing the defendant's right to legal aid (Art. 158), the Constitution provides for legal assistance by collegiums of advocates to citizens and organisations, as well as for free legal assistance in cases provided for by legislation (Art. 161).

The presumption of innocence, a principle recognised in previous Soviet legislation, has been elevated to the status of a constitutional provision. This means that no one may be adjudged guilty of a crime and subjected to punishment as a criminal except by the sentence of a court and in conformity with the law (Art. 160).

The extension of the democratic foundations of Soviet J. and the growing educational role of the judicial process are further exemplified by the fact that participation of representatives of social organisations and of work collectives in civil and criminal proceedings, a common practice in the activities of the courts, has also been made a constitutional provision (Art. 162).

The USSR's Fundamental Law affirms principles of judicial organisation and procedure which evolved parallel with the development of the Soviet judicial system and have proved their effectiveness in strengthening the legal foundations of the Soviet state and society. These principles underlie the activity of Soviet courts and provide guidelines for further development and improvement of Soviet legislation.

[148] __ALPHA_LVL1__ L __ALPHA_LVL2__ Labour.

Art. 14 of the USSR Constitution reads, in part: "The source of the growth of social wealth and of the well-being of the people, and of each individual, is the labour, free from exploitation, of Soviet people...

``Socially useful work and its results determine a person's status in society. By combining material and moral incentives and encouraging innovation and a creative attitude to work, the state helps transform labour into the prime vital need of every Soviet citizen.''

Socialism engenders a new attitude to L. In his article "A Great Beginning" Lenin described the chief features of this new attitude produced by the victory of the October Revolution: "Communism begins when the rank-and-file workers display an enthusiastic concern that is undaunted by arduous toil to increase the productivity of labour, husband every pood of grain, coal, iron and other products, which do not accrue to the workers personally or to their `close' kith and kin, but to their `distant' kith and kin, i.e., to society as a whole, to tens and hundreds of millions of people united first in one socialist state, and then in a Union of Soviet republics.'' L. is characterised by conscious discipline of working people, a responsible attitude to work, a high standard of organisation, and the feeling that one is contributing to the common cause. An excellent manifestation of the new attitude to L. is socialist competition (q. v.)---friendly emulation for increased production---in which over 100 million people in the USSR are involved.

Consolidation of socialism in the USSR has produced both the material foundation for the universality of L. and promoted a conscientious attitude towards it, the need of every able-bodied member of society to work for the benefit of all.

The universal character of L. under socialism, and the fact that it is the right and duty of every citizen to work are reflected in the new USSR Constitution (Arts. 40 and 60).

The L. of workers, collective-farmers and 149 intellectuals creates the material and cultural values and multiplies the national wealth of the USSR.

L. is the principal yardstick against which a person's place in socialist society and his social prestige are measured. A conscientious, responsible and creative approach to L. is the chief means for a person to demonstrate his worth as a citizen and is a source of growth for the people's well-being.

The 1979 census revealed that over half of the Soviet population is employed in the various branches of the economy. In 1984, the average annual number of factory and office workers was 116.8 million. At present, the level of employment of the able-bodied population in the social economy plus the share of fulltime students is 94 per cent. An essential feature of the universality or labour today is the balance between the needs of the economy and the professional and occupational skills of the working people; for this reason, great importance is attached to the professional and vocational training of future participants in social production. Art. 40 of the Constitution states that citizens of the USSR have a right "to choose their trade or profession, type of job and work in accordance with their inclinations, abilities, training and education, with due account of the needs of society''.

A necessary condition for the L. of Soviet citizens is provision of normal working conditions for each person. One of the constitutional obligations of the state is concern with "improving working conditions, safety and labour protection and the scientific organisation of work, and with reducing and ultimately eliminating all arduous physical labour through comprehensive mechanisation and automation of production processes in all branches of the economy" (Art. 21).

Elimination of unskilled and arduous physical L. is a serious economic and social task which must be resolved for L. to become a vital part of everyone's life. At present, the Soviet Union is developing an integral special-purpose programme aimed at reducing the number of people in such jobs.

The USSR Constitution also lays down a number of 150 norms determining the principles of legal regulation of L. of various categories of the population: a ban on children's L. not connected with education and training in the crafts; improvement of the system of public education preparing young people for participation in socially useful work; granting women and men equal rights and opportunities in L., remuneration for L. and promotion at work, allowing women the opportunity to combine motherhood and a career (Art. 35).

Today, the production activity of workers and collective farmers is assuming an increasingly intellectual character thanks to scientific and technological progress.

Man's L. creates the wealth of society. The greater the results of L., the stronger our country becomes, the better the people's individual and social needs are met and the higher their standard of living. L. alone, its quality and quantity can serve as the chief criterion for distribution under socialism. The socialist system of material and moral incentives has been introduced in the USSR to ensure a fair and objective assessment of the L. contributed by each member of society. Conscientious L. for the good of all is encouraged in all possible ways. At the same time, Art. 60 of the Constitution states that "evasion of socially useful work is incompatible with the principles of socialist society''. This means that parasitism, bribery, profiteering, and infringements upon socialist property are to be combatted by all organisational, financial and legal means.

The principle "from each according to his ability, to each according to his work" has become the constitutional foundation of state control over the measure of L. and consumption. In the USSR, pertinent state bodies fix obligatory rates of L. and its remuneration determined by output quotas, tariff rates, and the existing systems of L. remuneration. Trade unions (q. v.) ana work collectives (q. v.) also take an active part in controlling the measure of L. and consumption. Together with state bodies and officials, they elaborate decisions and normative acts regulating output norms, wages and salaries, and the distribution of bonus funds throughout the economy as a whole, within individual 151 branches, and at enterprises (e.g., collective forms of L. remuneration).

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Labour Discipline.

According to Art. 60 of the Constitution, "it is the duty of, and a matter of honour for, every able-bodied citizen of the USSR ... strictly to observe labour discipline''. L.D. is a system of rules established by special normative acts for fulfilling professional duties and observing obligations by the employees, thus ensuring their smooth collaboration.

L.D. is a necessary condition of any collective labour activity, but its social content varies depending on the social formation. Unlike serfdom, where disciplinewas imposed by punitive measures, and capitalism, where discipline is enforced by hunger, "the communist organisation of social labour, the first step towards which is socialism,'' as Lenin put it, "rests, and will do so more and more as time goes on, on the free and conscious discipline of the working people themselves who have thrown off the yoke both of the landowners and capitalists.'' Proceeding from Lenin's ideas, the CPSU and the Soviet government steadily work to improve L.D.

The Fundamentals of Legislation of the USSR and of the Union republics establish that L.D. is attained through a conscientious attitude to work, persuasion and reward for honest work. Disciplinary and educational measures may be applied to slipshod workers when necessary.

It is the duty of all state bodies and social organisations, as well as of work collectives (q. v.), to contribute to the consolidation of L.D.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Land Use

---legal relations between the Soviet state, as the owner of all land in the USSR, and enterprises, institutions, organisations, individuals or their associations, regarding the plots of land allotted to them for their use.

L.U. in the USSR is based on exclusive state ownership of land, established by the Decree on Land promulgated during October Revolution. Under the 152 Decree, private ownership of land was abolished once and for all; all the land was made a common possession of the people and handed over, free of charge, to socialist organisations and to individual citizens for their use.

The system of L.U. under socialism is based on socialist public ownership of the means of production and on the socialist economic system. Its social forms are: L.U. by state-owned enterprises, organisations and institutions, to which land is granted for developing agriculture, industry, transport, and for social, cultural and other economic needs; that by collective farms, farm associations and other cooperative organisations; and that by social organisations.

To individual citizens of the USSR land can be granted for the construction of individual housing or for a subsidiary small holding.

All land users must make effective and thrifty use of their land allotments. Purchase and sale, mortgage, lease, bestowal and exchange of land plots, and other transactions which directly or indirectly violate the right of state land ownership are illegal and entail criminal responsibility.

The Constitution of the USSR contains some provisions which regulate L.U. by collective farms and individual citizens (Arts. 12 and 13). One of the basic principles of collective-farm L.U., established by the Fundamentals of Land Legislation of the USSR and of the Union Republics (1968) and in the Model Collective-Farm Rules (1969) is that of inalterability of collective-farm land allotments; the state deed establishing the right to L.U. specifies the exact size and boundaries of the land plots secured to farms. The land held by collective farms is secured to them for their free use in perpetuity. Cases of special need are governed by a special procedure of withdrawing plots from collective farms for social or state requirements.

On the plots allotted to them, collective farms are entitled to the use of woodlands, all surface and subsurface water sources, and to mine certain minerals (such as gravel, peat, etc.) other than oil, coal and ores.

Every collective farm family is entitled to the use of 153 a land plot under 0.5 hectare in size (including the land occupied by buildings). Making it available to other persons for their use or using hired labour for cultivating it is forbidden.

Industrial and office workers, as well as pensioners and the disabled, residing in rural areas, also have the right to use land plots. Under the Land Code of the Russian Federation the size of the subsidiary land plots is determined as follows: permanently employed workers and other employees, and specialists at state farms and other state-owned agricultural enterprises, up to 0.3 hectare per family; workers, office employees and specialists (such as teachers and doctors), up to 0.25 hectare per family; and pensioners and the disabled, up to 0.15 hectare per family. Besides the subsidiary plots, the legislation also envisages the possibility of making available to workers and other employees residing in rural areas land plots for vegetable gardens, under 0.15 hectare in size, from the land allotments of collective and state farms and other organisations.

L.U. by urban and urban-type rural community dwellers has the goal of construction of individual dwellings, organising country cottage and garage building cooperatives, and undertaking cooperative gardening ventures. Depending on the size of the house, the land plots for the construction of individual dwellings range from 0.03 to 0.06 hectare in urban and from 0.07 to 0.12 hectare in rural communities.

The law on land use by house-building or country cottage cooperatives is governed by common land-use rules for all socialist organisations; there are, however, some privileges as regards the allotment of land plots to housing cooperatives.

Collective gardening plots (under 0.06 hectare in size) are assigned to enterprises, institutions and organisations for establishing a gardening cooperatives thereon. Membership is open to workers and other employees 18 years or age and older and to pensioners previously employed by an enterprise.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Language.

Art. 34 of the USSR Constitution states that citizens of the USSR are equal before the law, 154 without distinction of language. One of the major guarantees of this equality is "the possibility to use their native language and the languages of other peoples of the USSR" (Art. 36).

The Communist Party and the Soviet Government attach great importance to the questions involved in the use and development of the native tongue of each nation and nationality living in the USSR. It was under the Soviet system that many of them first received an opportunity not merely to freely use their mother tongue but to develop a written L. as well.

The close unity of the Soviet peoples, the drawing closer together of all nations and nationalities, and their greater economic and ideological cohesion do not at all imply the elimination of national, and especially L. distinctions: this is a much lengthier process than the obliteration of class distinctions. The goal the CPSU has set is to ensure the free development of the L.s of the peoples living in the USSR, the freedom of each citizen to speak, bring up and educate his children in whatever L. he chooses without privileges, restrictions or compulsion in the use of any particular L.

Against a background of friendly relations and confidence among the peoples, the national L.s develop on the basis of equality and mutual benefit. At the same time the Russian L., which was voluntarily adopted by Soviet people as the L. of inter-national communication, has greatly promoted the consolidation of the social, political and ideological community of the Soviet people and the mutually beneficial enrichment of national cultures, and has given each people in the Soviet country free access to the treasures of world civilization. The 1979 population census showed that 153.5 million people consider Russian their native L., including 137.2 million Russians and 16.3 million people of other nationalities. In addition, 61.3 million people stated that they spoke fluent Russian as a second L.

The USSR Constitution and other legislative acts guarantee every citizen the right to receive an 155 education in the native L. (Art. 45). Equality of the L.s is observed in the activities of all government and nongovernment bodies. Under Art. 116 of the Constitution, laws of the USSR and decisions and other acts of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR are published in the L.s of all Union republics. Deputies of the Supreme and local Soviets have a right to speak at sessions and take pan in other debates using their native tongue. Judicial proceedings are conducted in the L. of the Union or Autonomous republic, Autonomous region, or Autonomous area, or in the L. spoken by the majority of the people in the locality. Persons participating in court proceedings who do not know the L. in which they are being conducted are ensured the right to become fully acquainted with the materials in the case, to use the services of an interpreter during the proceedings, and to address the court in their own L. (Art. 159).

The Constitutions and other legislative acts of all Union and Autonomous republics lay down the same principles as concerns the use of the national L. during studies, in the activities of the bodies of state authority and administration, dispensation of justice and in other fields of public life.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Language of Court Proceedings

---see Courts; Language,

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Law.

"Laws of the USSR shall be enacted by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR or by a nationwide vote ( referendum) held by decision of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR" (Art. 108 of the Constitution).

The term ``law'' has a double meaning. In the broad sense, a law is a norm of Soviet legislation, any legal normative act of the USSR in general (e.g., the use of the term ``law'' in Arts. 155, 156, etc. of the USSR Constitution); in the narrow sense, a law is a normative act possessing supreme legal force (as compared to edicts, resolutions, decisions and other normative acts which has been enacted by the highest body of state authority of the USSR, or of a Union or Autonomous republic (Arts. 108, 137, 143) in conformity with the procedure prescribed by the Constitution and 156 defining legal norms and general rules of conduct.

The Fundamental Law of the Soviet state is the Constitution of the USSR. Its special place in the system of Soviet laws is reflected in Art. 4, which reads: "State organisations, social organisations and officials shall observe the Constitution of the USSR and Soviet laws,'' and in Art. 173: "The Constitution of the USSR shall have supreme legal force. All laws and other acts of state bodies shall be promulgated on the basis of and in conformity with it.'' Under Arts. 76 and 82, the Constitutions of Union and Autonomous republics are to conform to the Constitution of the USSR, but within the system of normative acts of a Union or Autonomous republic, the Constitution of that republic has supreme legal force.

Enactment of laws is the legal right of the Supreme Soviets as the highest bodies of state authority of the USSR and of Union and Autonomous republics.

Laws of the USSR have the highest legal force after the Constitution. All normative acts of the USSR are subdivided into laws and legally binding ordinances, thus all other normative acts must conform to laws and cannot repeal or modify them (Arts. 133, 135, etc.). Under Art. 122, amendment of existing legislative acts of the USSR between sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR or of a Union or Autonomous republic is the prerogative of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR or the republic in question and is subject to confirmation at the next session.

The Fundamental Law of the USSR places under the jurisdiction of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics "the ensurance of uniformity of legislative norms throughout the USSR and establishment of the fundamentals of the legislation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Union Republics" (Art. 73.4). One of the guarantees of such uniformity is the priority of the laws of the USSR over the laws of Union republics (Art. 74): "The laws of the USSR shall have the same force in all Union Republics. In the event of a discrepancy between a Union republic law and an AilUnion law, the law of the USSR shall prevail.''

157

Laws are promulgated in conformity with a procedure established by the USSR Constitution and the Rules and Regulations of the USSR Supreme Soviet, a document which develops Constitutional provisions. For a bill to become a law it must pass through the following stages: initiation of legislation (Art. 113); debate of the bill, including preliminary or additional consideration by one or more commissions (Art. 114); adoption of the law by each chamber of the Supreme Soviet (Art. 114); publication of the law (Art. 116).

By decision of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR or its Presidium or on the proposal of a Union republic, bills may be submitted for nationwide discussion (q. v.) (e.g., the bill on air protection and on the protection and use of the animal world).

The adoption and amendment of the Constitution as the Fundamental Law of the state is the exclusive prerogative of the USSR Supreme Soviet (Arts. 108 and 174).

The democratic character of the development and adoption of laws in the USSR and the absence of impediments hampering their amendment made it possible to keep laws flexible and ensure their correspondence to the level of Soviet society's development.

Legislative activity in the USSR is directed by the Communist Party and is carried out with the assistance of state bodies and social organisations, specialists and scientists, and a broad cross-section of the population.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Law and Order.

Art. 4 of the USSR Constitution reads, in part: "The Soviet state and all its bodies function on the basis of socialist law, ensure the maintenance of law and order, and safeguard the interests of society and the rights and freedoms of citizens.''

L. and O. represents a system and a structure of social relationships which rest on the foundation of current legislation.

The main features of socialist L. and O. in the USSR are the exercise of political power by the whole people, the socialist economic system and socialist ownership of the means of production, the genuinely democratic character of the state system, equality of 158 all nations and nationalities, the Communist Party's leading role in society and the state, and equality of citizens. L. and O. gives citizens of the USSR the right to protection by the courts against encroachments on their honour and reputation, life and health, personal freedom and property; it also secures their rights and freedoms, and assures unimpeded fulfilment of their duties (see Basic Rights and Freedoms of Citizens, Basic Duties of Citizens).

Soviet socialist L. and O. depends on the strict observance of laws. Lenin believed the reliable maintenance of elementary law and order to be a feature of transition to socialism. Socialist L. and O., including legal regulation of relations in the spheres of production, distribution and exchange, ultimately contributes to the consolidation of socialist production relations on the basis of comradely cooperation and socialist mutual assistance among persons free from exploitation and, consequently, to the strengthening and development of the socialist system.

Soviet political relations which correspond to the requirements of law are based on socialist democracy, which makes all citizens masters in their own land and ensures their participation in the solution of the economic, political, cultural, ideological and educational problems facing the nation.

Further strengthening and development of socialist L. and O. are indispensable for the development of the socialist economy, extension of socialist democracy and its gradual evolution into communist public self-government (q. v.), and the flowering of personality.

Public order (q. v.) is one of the aspects of socialist L. and O. As socialism develops, L. and O. is strengthened. The CPSU Central Committee's decree On Improving the Maintenance of Law and Order and Stepping up the Struggle Against Infringements of the Law (1979) defines the most important tasks which Party organisations, state bodies and public organisations are called upon to fulfil in order to reinforce L. and O. The decree stresses the need to improve the work of the agencies of the Procurator's Office (q. v.), 159 agencies of the interior, and the courts (q. v.) which are called upon to uphold socialist legality and protect the interests of society and the rights of Soviet citizens.

The courts, the procurator's offices and the Soviet militia have a responsible role to play in strengthening socialist legality. The expertise of these agencies' officials, combined with their sense of civic duty, integrity, incorruptibility and even-handedness guarantee a fulfilment of their challenging responsibilities. Law enforcement agencies are supported by the Party and the public at large.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Legal Aid to Citizens

---see Bar.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Legal Procedure.

Under the USSR Constitution, this is the statutory procedure for the hearing of civil and criminal cases (see Arts. 1 59, 162).

The L.P. for civil cases is defined by the Fundamentals of Civil Procedure of the USSR and of the Union Republics, by other laws of the USSR and the Civil Procedure Codes of the Union Republics based on the Fundamentals, which establish the obligatory rules to be observed when preparing, trying and settling civil cases. The L.P. for criminal cases is defined by the Fundamentals of Criminal Procedure of the USSR and the Union Republics and other laws of the USSR, and the Criminal Procedure Codes of the Union Republics based on the Fundamentals, which establish the obligatory rules to be observed when instituting, investigating, trying and settling criminal cases.

The Soviet Constitution determines the principles on the basis of which all Soviet procedural law is built, and the functions of the courts, bodies of inquest, investigators, and procurators at all stages of civil and criminal proceedings (see Courts).

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Legislative Act,

a normative act of the highest body of state authority of the USSR, or a Union or Autonomous republic.

The 1977 Constitution offers a double interpretation of the term. Art. 122 states that between sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and 160 subject to submission for confirmation at the next session, the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet shall "amend existing legislative acts of the USSR when necessary''. In this case, the term L.A. denotes laws (q. v.) and other normative acts adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. In a broader sense, the Constitution interprets the term L.A. in Art. 140, which reads: The Council of Ministers of a Union Republic shall issue decisions and orders on the basis and in pursuance of the legislative acts of the USSR and of the Union Republic, and of decisions and orders of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, and shall organise and verify their execution. In this case, the term L.A. embraces not only laws and other normative decisions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR but also normative acts of trie Presidiums of the Supreme Soviets, on the basis and in pursuance of which government decisions and orders are also issued. L.A.s occupy the leading place in the system of legal acts of the Soviet state. All other Soviet legislation, as well as the normative acts of ministries, state departments, local Soviets and their executive and administrative bodies, are developed on the basis of L.A.s, in pursuance of them, and with the objective of meeting the requirements they set.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Local Community Groups.

As proclaimed in Article 48 of the Constitution of the USSR, citizens have the right to take part in managing the affairs of the state and society. The Constitution states that one of the guarantees of this right is the opportunity for citizens to take part in the work of local community groups. L.C.G. are associations of citizens functioning within certain territories or work collectives (q. v.) with the purpose of satisfying their members' social, cultural and other requirements and interests. L.C.G. are organised around certain group or community interests of persons living or working together, e.g. the desire to make their neighbourhood a better place to live in, improve the work of a local school, supervise the work of local public service facilities, organise production on a scientific basis, prevent __PRINTERS_P_161_COMMENT__ 11--1192 161 breaches of law and discipline and so on.

L.C.G. (councils, committees and commissions) are usually formed through elections held at meetings of work collectives or residents in a neighbourhood. The most common types of L.C.G. are house and neighbourhood committees, parent councils in schools, social councils in institutions of health protection, culture and public services; women's councils; village social committees, volunteer public order squads, comrades' courts, councils of young workers and their instructors; social work-study bureaus, councils for the prevention of breaches of law and discipline in collectives, etc.

L.C.G. are basically concerned with involving working people in the day-to-day activities of bodies of state authority and administration and in the exercise of public control over community facilities and cultural amenities, as well as rendering assistance to state bodies in reinforcing socialist legality (q. v.) and promoting the labour and social activity of the working people.

The activity of L.C.G. is regulated by corresponding acts (provisions) and is conducted in cooperation with state bodies and social organisations. Soviet laws make it incumbent on the local Soviets of People's Deputies to direct this activity (by means of monitoring the legitimacy of actions, observing the democratic principles of their election and coordinating their work plans with those of standing committees and groups of deputies).

[162] __ALPHA_LVL1__ M __ALPHA_LVL2__ Marriage and Family.

Art. 53 of the Constitution reads: "The family enjoys the protection of the state.

``Marriage is based on the free consent of the woman and the man; the spouses are completely equal in their family relations.

``The state helps the family by providing and developing a broad system of childcare institutions, by organising and improving communal services and public catering, by paying grants on the birth of a child, by providing children's allowances and benefits for large families, and other forms of family allowances and assistance.''

The purpose of the USSR Law on marriage and family is to help consolidate the family, which rests on the principles of communist morals. Family relations are based on the voluntary marital union of man and woman and on sentiments of mutual love, free from materialistic considerations, on friendship and respect for all family members.

Property acquired by the spouses during their marriage shall be their common property. The spouses shall enjoy equal rights to own, use and dispose of such property, even if one of them does not work outside the home for valid reasons (housekeeping, taking care of the children, etc.) and has no independent income. Only the property belonging to either spouse prior to marriage or received by them during marriage either as a gift or by inheritance remains the property of the spouse concerned.

A major purpose of the family in socialist society is the upbringing of children. Family upbringing is complemented by public education which helps to teach the children to love their country and develop a communist attitude to work. The parents have equal rights and responsibilities towards their children. They are obliged to look after their physical health and development, schooling and training for socially useful work, and to do their best to make them worthy members of socialist society. Parents are also obliged to maintain their minor children and non-able-bodied __PRINTERS_P_163_COMMENT__ 11* 163 children who have attained maturity but are in need of support. In their turn, children of full legal age are obliged to support their parents if they are unfit for work and need to be looked after.

Given the mutual consent of spouses who have no children under the age of 18, a marriage is dissolved at a registry office; in all other cases, a marriage is dissolved in court if the court rules that further cohabitation and the preservation of the family have become impossible. The court takes steps to protect the interests of minor children and non-able-bodied spouses.

The Party and the Government regard assistance to families in the upbringing of children as a major part of the country's programme for social development. Over recent years, a number of important legal acts have been passed to improve the conditions of mothers, children, and large families (see Mothers and Children). Beginning in 1973, all working women, regardless of the length of their service, receive maternity allowances which equal their salary.

In 1981, the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers passed a decision On Measures to Increase State Aid to Families with Children, which provides for additional privileges and benefits for such families to ensure a sensible combination of family and public upbringing of children, make life easier for working mothers and provide favourable conditions for newlyweds. The decision introduced a number of privileges for mothers with young children: they receive longer paid and additional leave for the care of children, more opportunities to work part-time or at home; some of their allowances have been increased and new retirement privileges introduced, etc. A number of measures have been worked out to give families with children and newlyweds a priority right to state housing, when building individual accommodations or joiningahouse-buildingcooperative. It was decided to abolish the tax payable by persons with small families for newlyweds during the first year of their married life counting from the day of their marriage; since November 1981, lump-sum grants are 164 being gradually introduced over the country. These are payable to working mothers and mothers who are full-time students on the occasion of the birth of the first (50 roubles), second (100 roubles) child, with grants for the birth of the third and subsequent children remaining the same. All in all, the decision has served to improve the material position of over 4.5 million families with children.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Material Maintenance.

"Citizens of the USSR shall have the right to maintenance in old age, in sickness, and in the event of complete or partial disability or loss of the breadwinner" (Art. 43 of the Constitution of the USSR). The maintenance comes in the form of material (financial) support extended to citizens, in cases stipulated by law, from the social insurance (q. v.) fund, collective-farm funds earmarked for the purpose, and direct appropriations from the national budget.

The main source of M.M. in the USSR is the workers' and employees' social insurance fund, made up of established contributions for the purpose by all enterprises, organisations and institutions, not accompanied by any deductions from their employees' wages or salaries.

The main form of M.M. is the granting of pensions, i.e., payments of fixed sums of money if the conditions stipulated by law (such as the attainment of a specific age or length of service, or the certification of disability, etc.) are met.

The age of eligibility for old-age pensions established in the USSR, 60 years of age for men and 55 for women, is respectively five and ten years lower than that stipulated by the International Labour Organization convention on disability, retirement and loss-- ofbreadwinner benefits (1967). In many developed capitalist countries, the legislation envisages the granting of old-age pensions upon the attainment of the age of 65 or 70. In many countries, reductions of the retirement age for people in health-hazardous occupations or working women are not envisaged.

The M.M. of collective farmers is based on the same 165 legal foundations as that of industral and office workers. Some collective-farm members, such as specialists and machine operators, are entitled to pension benefits on exactly the same basis as industrial and office workers. However, the collective-farm M.M. system also has some features of its own. For instance, the centralised all-Union social security and social insurance funds of the collective farmers, and the collective-farm social security and material security funds, are structurally separate from the state social insurance fund. There are some differences as regards the rates of, and eligibility for, the granting of pensions to collective-farm members as compared to those applicable to industrial and office workers. A gradual reduction of these differences is now taking place.

An important role in the improvement of the material maintenance of pensioners has been played by the decision on measures to provide material incentives for gainful employment of pensioners in the economy, adopted by trie CPSU Central Committee and the Council of Ministers of the USSR. It introduced a number of benefits, including: an approved list of categories of workers authorised to retain 50, 75 or 100 per cent of their old-age pensions while continuing to work; a pension supplement of 10 roubles per month is now payable per each year of employment after the attainment of the retirement age; 60 days of unpaid leave have been authorised for working old-age pensioners.

In the llth Five-Year Plan period, the minimum old-age and disability pensions payable to factory and office workers, and collective farmers were increased, as were the pensions payable in the event of loss of the breadwinner. For instance, as of November 1, 1981, the minimum old-age pensions for workers and other employees were raised to 50 roubles per month, while the minimum pensions for the disabled and in the event of loss of the breadwinner were also raised. The leveling off of the conditions of payment of social security benefits to collective farmers, as compared to people employed by state-owned enterprises, continued. The level of previously granted pensions was gradually 166 approaching that of the pensions currently being granted to people in similar occupations and with similar skill levels. The network of boarding houses for pensioners, and the amenities available there have been expanding, and so on.

Besides the pensions, material maintenance of citizens also comprises expenditures from the national budget to finance the establishment of specialised enterprises for the partially disabled, providing them with medical care, sanatorium and resort treatment, and prosthetic and orthopedic assistance, as well as their maintenance in the homes for the aged and the disabled. A decision on measures for the provision of additional services to the aged and the disabled residing in boarding houses, adopted by the Council of Ministers of the USSR in October 1977, among other things, recommended that ministries and government departments build boarding houses for old-age pensioners and finance the construction out of the capital investments allocated for the construction of housing.

The Soviet people's concern for the M.M. of the disabled has also been reflected in the adoption of legislation establishing certain privileges and benefits for them. The legislation covers sanatorium and health resort services, the provision of medicines and special transportation facilities, discount fares in municipal, rail and river transport, the availability of fuel, the installation of home telephones, the provision of housing, the repair of dwellings, and so on. In March 1980, the CPSU Central Committee and the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a decision on additional measures to improve the material and living conditions of the Great Patriotic War veterans, providing for the following benefits: the disabled workers of the first and second categories are entitled, once a year, to free travel on rail and river transport (round trip); the disabled workers of the third category, and their family members residing with them, are entitled to a 50 per cent discount on their apartment rent and utility bills; the disabled workers of the third category are exempt from income tax, while their minimum pension has been raised to 40 roubles per month; the 167 pensions of the disabled workers of the first and second categories have been increased by 10 per cent. War veterans are now exempt from 50 per cent of the income tax on their wages and have priority rights as regards the provision of housing.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Military Tribunals.

The USSR Constitution defines M.T. as courts functioning in the Armed Forces of the USSR (Art. 151).

The general principles of the administration of justice (q. v.) established by the Constitution of the USSR, and other legislation of the USSR and Union republics fully apply to the M.T., which are courts of the USSR and part of the country's overall judicial system (see Courts). The judges of M.T. are elected for a term of five years by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, and people's assessors for a term of two and a half years by meetings of servicemen. Citizens of the USSR in active military service who by the day of the elections will be at least 25 years of age, are eligible to be elected as judges---- Chairmen, Vice-Chairmen and members of M.T. Any citizen of the USSR in active military service is eligible to be elected an assessor.

The Armed Forces of the USSR have M.T. of armies, flotillas, formations and garrisons functioning as courts of first instance. M.T. of the arms of services of the USSR Armed Forces, military districts, grous of troops and navies act as courts of cassation and supervision with respect to lower-rank M.T. These M.T. also try the more important cases as courts of first instance.

Within the jurisdiction of M.T. are criminal offences committed by servicemen and reservists in military training; all espionage cases; and specified types of civil suits. In localities where due to exceptional circumstances civil courts are not functioning, M.T. try all civil and criminal cases.

Supervision over the functioning of M.T. is executed by the Supreme Court of the USSR (q. v.). Its military division tries, as a court of first instance, all cases of exceptional importance within the jurisdiction of M.T., has the rights of a court of cassation and, 168 together with the Plenary Session of the Supreme Court, the right of supervision with respect to lower-rank tribunals.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Mothers and Children.

The Constitution of the USSR has proclaimed the equality of rights of women and men, to be guaranteed by the granting to women of equal rights with men in all spheres, as well as "by special labour and health protection measures for women; by providing conditions enabling mothers to work; by legal protection, and material and moral support for mothers and children, including paid leaves and other benefits for expectant mothers and mothers, and gradual reduction of working time for mothers with small children" (Art. 35 of the Constitution of the USSR).

The interests of mothers and children are protected by the establishment of an extended network of maternity hospitals, creches and kindergartens, boarding schools ana other facilities for children. Keeping their children in pre-school facilities results in substantial savings for families. The state also pays women maternity allowances, allowances to mothers of large families, and to single mothers. The interests of mothers and children are also protected by a set of legal norms entitling working women and working mothers to certain benefits and favourable treatment in the social production process (see Marriage and Family). In accordance with the Fundamentals of Labour Legislation of the USSR and of the Union Republics, women may not be used in arduous jobs or jobs with healthhazardous working conditions; other restrictions apply to their night or overtime work. Refusal to hire expectant or nursing mothers or reduction of their wages on these grounds are prohibited. On doctors' orders, expectant mothers may be transferred to less arduous jobs, being entitled to their previous average level of earnings. If unable to carry out their previous work, working women with children under one year of age may be transferred to other jobs until the attainment of the age of one year by the child.

Women are entitled to maternity leaves of 56 days 169 before delivery and as many after delivery with social insurance (q. v.) allowances payable during the period. In case of complicated delivery or birth of several children, the maternity leave after the delivery is extended to 70 days. Besides the maternity leaves, partially paid leaves for taking care of children until the attainment by them of one year and a half will be gradually introduced in various regions of the country in 1986--1990. Women will also be given additional unpaid leaves for up to six months.

Mothers who have brought up five or more children until the age of eight are entitled to supplementary pension benefits.

In 1981--1985, the following measures directed towards improving the working and living conditions of working mothers were introduced: mothers of small children were given the opportunity to work short hours or a short week, on flexible schedules, or at home; the number of specialised health-building centres for expectant mothers was increased; much attention was paid to the development of pre-school children's establishments; the number of pupils in whole-day groups and schools was increased and the network of holiday homes accommodating families was considerably expanded.

[170] __ALPHA_LVL1__ N __ALPHA_LVL2__ National Anthem of the USSR.

The National Anthem of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is confirmed by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (Art. 171 of the USSR Constitution). Together with the National Emblem and the National Flag of the USSR, the N.A. is an official symbol of the state, a ceremonial musical and poetical work performed at official ceremonies, celebrations and on other occasions defined by legal acts.

Prior to 1943, the N.A. of the USSR was The Internationale (at present, this is the Anthem of the CPSU). In 1944, another anthem was instituted, and in May 1977, the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet passed a decree approving a new text and music for the N.A. of the USSR. The N.A. hails the friendiship of the peoples living in the country, their ideological and political unity, and their determination to build a communist society in the USSR.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ National Budget of the USSR.

Under Art. 108 of the Constitution, approval of the N.B. of the USSR and reports on its execution is the exclusive prerogative of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

The N.B. of the USSR is the main financial plan which defines the formation and directions of expenditure of state funds.

A single N.B. is worked out for the whole of the country. The state, represented by its highest bodies of state authority, estimates the taxes and income comprising the N.B. of the USSR, which concentrates and distributes about 50 per cent of the country's national income. Most of the income (over 90 per cent) is contributed to the N.B. by state and cooperative enterprises and organisations as payment for production assets, the free remainder of the profit, turnover tax, fixed payments, the income tax paid by enterprises and organisations in instalments, deductions from profits, and other forms of revenues from the socialist economy.

In 1984, the N.B. of the USSR was 366 billion roubles, including 335.4 billion received from state and 171 cooperative enterprises and organisations, and 28.8 billion (i.e., 7.8 per cent of the N.B.), from the population in the form of taxes.

The N.B. of the USSR makes possible the planned expenditure of money for the advance of socialist construction and the steady improvement of the people's living standard. The bulk of the means of the N.B. is used to finance economic development, i.e. extended socialist reproduction, which forms the basis for increasing the people's material welfare and for promoting social and cultural development.

The estimated N.B. expenditure for 1984 was 365.8 billion roubles with 207.9 billion earmarked for the economy, and 118.2 billion for social and cultural development. The latter figure includes appropriations for general secondary, specialised secondary and vocational schools, and institutions of higher learning, scientific research institutes, libraries, community centres, theatres, the press, television, radio, various cultural and educational facilities, hospitals, creches, health resorts and other health-care and physical training institutions, pensions and benefits of various types.

In 1984, N.B. appropriations for the defence of the country amounted to 17 billion roubles, i.e, the same as in 1981. The fact that this figure has remained virtually unchanged for quite a few years reveals the total groundlessness of bourgeois allegations concerning the so-called Soviet threat. Whereas the military spending of the Soviet state is channeled into increasing the country's defence potential, the imperialist states, particularly the USA (the US military budget for fiscal 1985--1986 was over 300 billion dollars) continue to increase military expenditures for the purpose of whipping up the arms race.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ National Emblem of the USSR.

The National Emblem of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is a hammer and sickle on a globe depicted in the rays of the sun and framed by ears of wheat, with the inscription 'Workers of All Countries, Unite!' in the languages of the Union Republics. At the top of the Emblem is a five-pointed star (Art. 169 of the USSR Constitution).

172

The N.E. of the USSR is an official symbol of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the symbol of its state sovereignty.

The first N.E. of the USSR was approved by the Central Executive Committee of the USSR on June 6, 1923, and its description was included into the 1924 Constitution of the USSR.

The N.E. of the USSR symbolises the indissoluble union of the workers and the peasants, the equality, friendship and fraternity of all the nations and nationalities, and the state homogeneity of the Soviet people. It also conveys the idea of the international solidarity of the Soviet people with the working people in all countries.

In conformity with the USSR Constitution, in March 1980 the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet approved the Statute on the N.E.: of the USSR denning where and in which cases the N.E. is to be placed.

N.E.s of the Union republics are described by the latters' Constitutions. They feature a hammer and sickle, a five-pointed star and the inscription in the language of the Union Republic in question and in Russian, "Workers of All Countries, Unite!" N.E. of the Union republics reflect also their national economic, geographical and other features.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ National Flag of the USSR.

The National Flag of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is a rectangle of red cloth with a hammer and sickle depicted in gold in the upper corner next to the staff and with a fivepointed red star edged in gold above them. The ratio of the width of the flag to its length is 1:2 (Art. 170 of the USSR Constitution).

The N.F. of the USSR is a symbol of sovereignty of the USSR.

The first N.F. of the USSR was hoisted upon a decision of the All-Russia Central Executive Committee passed on October 4, 1918, over the dome of the Kremlin building housing the offices of the All-Russia Central Executive Committee. After the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was formed, a new N.F. was 173 instituted and described in the 1924 Constitution.

The red colour of the N.F. of the USSR symbolises the heroic effort of the Soviet people led by the CPSU towards building socialism and communism, the great fraternity of all working people; the hammer and sickle symbolises the historically established indissoluble union of the working class and the collective-farm peasantry; and the red five-pointed star---the triumph of communist ideals.

In conformity with the USSR Constitution, in August 1980 the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet adopted the Statute on the National Flag of the USSR defining when and where it is to be hoisted: over building where the USSR Supreme Soviet sits in session, for the entire session period; over buildings of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet and the USSR Council of Ministers---permanently; over buildings of the Presidiums of the Supreme Soviets and the Councils of Ministers of Union and Autonomous republics, ministries, state committees and departments of the USSR, executive committees of local Soviets of People's Deputies and other state institutions---on national holidays and on other holidays and celebrations sponsored by government and non-government organisations as well. The N.F. of the USSR may also be hoisted over buildings and transport vehicles of Soviet diplomatic and trade delegations and consular institutions abroad, and in a number of other cases provided for by the Statute on the N.F. of the USSR.

Union republics have their own N.F. described in their Constitutions. The Statute on the National Flag of a Union republic approved by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of that republic defines where and when the N.F. is to be hoisted.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Nationwide Discussion.

Under Art. 5 of the USSR Constitution, "major matters of state shall be submitted to nationwide discussion and put to a popular vote (referendum)" (q. v.).

Bills and other important matters may be submitted to nationwide discussion by a decision of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR or its Presidium, or on the proposal 174 of a Union republic (Art. 114).

The Standing Orders of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted on April 19, 1979 establish that bills and materials on other questions submitted to nationwide discussion are to be published in the newspaper Izvestia of the Soviets of People's Deputies of the USSR, other central newspapers, in the republican and, if necessary, in the local press. On its own initiative or on the initiative of standing committees of the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities, or bodies, organisations and persons submitting a bill, the USSR Supreme Soviet Presidium may decide to publish the material in specialised periodical publications for discussion by the public. The suggestions received from citizens, work collectives, state institutions and organisations are examined and summarised in conformity with the procedure determined by the USSR Supreme Soviet and its Presidium and reported to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR when debating the bill or another question at its session.

N.D. of major state decisions is an institution typical of the socialist system. One of the more striking instances of its functioning was the discussion of the Draft Constitution held in 1977, in which over 140 million people, or more than 80 per cent of the country's adult population took part. Proposals submitted in the course of the discussion were a great help in clarifying, improving and complementing the final version of this important document.

Among other matters submitted to N.D. were the Bill on Work Collectives, which gave workers more rights in managing enterprises, state institutions and organisations (the Law was adopted in June 1983), and the bill submitted by the CPSU Central Committee Guidelines for the Reform of the General Secondary and Vocational Education (the Law was passed in January 1984), the draft new edition of the Programme of the CPSU, and draft amendments to the CPSU Rules (the new edition of the Party Programme and the amended CPSU Rules were adopted by the 27th CPSU Congress in 1986).

175 __ALPHA_LVL2__ Nomination of Deputies

---see Electoral System, People's Deputy.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Non-government organisations.

Art. 51 of the USSR Constitution reads, in part: In accordance with the aims of building communism, citizens of the USSR have the right to associate in non-government organisations that promote their political activity and initiative and satisfaction of their various interests.

N.O. are associations based on voluntary membership, self-government and initiative. They have their own resources and facilities and operate in accordance with rules which they adopt. These organisations are an integral part of the Soviet political system and one of the most important channels for public participation in managing the affairs of the society. Article 7 of the Constitution states that, in accordance with the aims laid down in their rules, mass organisations participate in managing state and public affairs and in deciding political, economic and social and cultural matters.

The USSR has a ramified and effective network of N.O., whose activities harmoniously combine the interests of different population groups with those of the society as a whole. N.O. include the trade unions (q. v.), the Ail-Union Leninist Young Communist League (q. v.), cooperatives (q. v.), voluntary societies (q. v.), and unions of creative workers (q. v.). Membership in N.O. embraces almost the entire adult population of the country.

The Constitution of the USSR has considerably extended the possibilities open to and rights of N.O. They have the right to own property which they require to carry out their activity under their rules (Art. 10); the right to participate in the just distribution of social consumption funds (Art. 23); the right to nominate candidates to Soviets, and to the free and all-round discussion of the political and personal qualities and competence of candidates; the right to campaign for them at meetings, in the press and on television and radio (Art. 100); the right to send their representatives to commissions responsible for conducting elections to Soviets (Art. 176 101); the right to initiate legislation (Art. 113); and the right to take part in civil and criminal proceedings (Art. 162).

At the same time, the USSR Constitution imposes certain obligations on N.O. and their organs. They are obliged to observe the Constitution of the USSR and Soviet laws (Art. 4); to receive deputies of Soviets and consider their proposals (Art. 105); to meet the requests of the committees of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and of its chambers, to consider their recommendations and to inform the committees of the results of such consideration or of the action taken within the prescribed time-limit (Art. 125), etc.

The internal affairs of mass organisations are governed by their rules. In accordance with the Constitution of the USSR, the state guarantees conditions for successful performance of the functions defined in their rules (Art. 51), encourages cooperatives and other N.O. to provide all types of services for the population (Art. 24), and provides the necessary support for voluntary societies and unions of creative workers (Art. 47). State bodies closely cooperate with N.O. in tackling common problems and jointly adopt legal instruments in economic, social and cultural fields.

The CPSU concerns itself with strengthening N.O., giving them all-round support, and encouraging their activities and initiatives.

__PRINTERS_P_177_COMMENT__ 12--1192 [177] __ALPHA_LVL1__ P __ALPHA_LVL2__ Pardon.

According to the Constitution of the USSR, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR has the power to grant a P. (Art. 121). Under constitutions of the Union republics, the P. of citizens sentenced by their courts is within the competence of the Presidiums of the Supreme Soviets of corresponding republics. The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Presidiums of Supreme Soviets of the Union republics issue special decrees and decisions regulating the procedures of P.

As an act of humanitarianism with respect to a person prosecuted or convicted for a crime, P. is granted on a strictly individual basis in the process of the ongoing functioning of the Presidiums of the Supreme Soviets of the USSR and the Union republics by means of the examination of appeals for P. Appeals for P. can be submitted by interested parties---prosecuted or convicted persons themselves, their relatives and other persons or organisations. Forms of P. include remission (complete or partial) of the main or supplementary penalty imposed by the court; commutation of penalty; release from panishment short of a full statutory term; and dropping of criminal charges.

The right of P. is normally exercised by the Soviet state with respect to persons who have repented of their crimes and work conscientiously in order to make up for the harm they have done to socialist society.

A pardon is not equivalent to rehabilitation, which is possible only as a result of a review of the case and its dismissal by a body of preliminary investigation, investigator, procurator or the court in due course in accordance with the law for lack of corpus delicti or evidence of complicity in the crime. P. should not be confused with amnesty (q. v.), in which case an act of a higher body of state authority is issued with respect to a certain category of persons, and the possibility of its application to a specific person is determined by competent authorities.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Peaceful Coexistence of States with Different Social Systems. 178

"The foreign policy of the USSR is aimed at ... consistenly implementing the principle of the peaceful coexistence of states with different social systems" (Art. 28 of the Constitution of the USSR).

The principle of P.C. follows from the possibility of, and the need for, the development of peaceful relations and mutually beneficial cooperation among states with different social systems in an era of revolutionary transition from capitalism to socialism.

The policy of P.C., substantiated by Lenin, has remained unchanged throughout the history of the Soviet state. The CPSU believes that the P.C. of socialist and capitalist states is an objective requirement for further development of mankind. This belief does not mean, however, that P.C. can be guaranteed automatically. Since its foundation, the USSR has consistently sought to establish this principle in international relations.

The world socialist system is the decisive factor in the application of the principle of P.C. The socialist states possess both the moral and the material potential to counter imperialism's aggressive designs. The effectiveness of the socialist countries' contribution to the promotion of P.C. is primarily due to the fact that their ruling parties, guided by Marxist-- Leninist theory, seek out and uphold ways for solving international problems that correspond to the objective laws of social development, to the interests of the overwhelming majority of the world's population, and which are a realistic means of safeguarding peace. Another real force actively contributing to the implementation of the principle of P.C. is the international working class, with Communist and Workers' parties at its forefront. The newly-independent countries are actively advocating P.C., as it is only through peace that they will be able to overcome the economic and social backwardness inherited from colonialism. Peaceloving public of different ideological and political orientations is also actively contributing to the implementation of the principle of P.C.

The interaction of all of the above factors has made the principle of P.C. a genuine force in international 179 development. On this basis, important problems which strained the international atmosphere, including those which remained outstanding since World War II, have been solved; numerous treaties and agreements have been concluded which contribute to international peace and security. At the 27th Congress of the CPSU it was noted: "The course of history, of social progress, requires ever more insistently that there should be constructive and creative interaction between states and peoples on the scale of the entire world. Not only does it so require, but it also creates the requisite political, social and material premises for it. Such interaction is essential in order to prevent nuclear catastrophe, in order that civilisation could survive. It is essential in order that other worldwide problems that are growing more acute should also be resolved jointly in the interests of all concerned.''

P.C. does not mean freezing the political or social status quo-, rather, it creates the best conditions for guaranteeing the inalienable right of every nation to freely choose its path of development and to seek genuine national independence.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Peasants

---see Collective-Farm Peasants.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Pensions

---see Material Maintenance.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ People's Control.

The Constitution of the USSR, which in Art. 9 proclaims that "the principal direction in the development of the political system of Soviet society is the extension of socialist democracy'', notes, inter alia, "the strengthening of the system of people's control''.

P.C. is a form of Soviet socialist democracy, and an effective means of involving popular masses in the administration of state and public affairs.

After the establishment of Soviet power in this country, workers' control was organised, which contributed to the nationalisation of industry and overcoming economic dislocation. In 1920, the People's Commissariat of Worlers' and Peasants' Inspection was set up in conjunction with the Central Control 180 Commission of the Central Committee of the Communist Party. Lenin's ideas on combining state control with control by broad sections of the working people were reflected in the Law on People's Control Bodies in the USSR (1965), developed in the Constitution of the USSR of 1977 and in the Law on People's Control in the USSR, adopted on the basis of the latter in 1979.

The main principles of organisation and functioning of P.C. are democratic centralism (q. v.), collegiality, legality, publicity (q. v.), and taking public opinion (q. v.) into account.

The uniform system of P.C. bodies comprises groups and committees, established by work collectives at enterprises, in collective farms, institutions and army units and is headed by the People's Control Committee of the USSR (formed by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR for a five-year term; it is a Union-Republican body which coordinates and directs the activity of all P.C. bodies and monitors the correct application of current legislation). P.C. committees are established by the respective Soviets of People's Deputies. At present, 1,260,000 people's control groups are at work in this country.

The main goal of activity of people's control bodies is the systematic monitoring of the implementation of Party directives, Soviet laws and government decisions. Within the limits of their sphere of competence, P.C. bodies supervise the implementation of state economic and social development plans and the attainment of planned targets; seek untapped reserves in the economy and promote their use, as well as greater social production efficiency and better work quality, the introduction in the production process of latest scientific and engineering achievements, advanced experience and thrifty use of labour and material resources; act against violations of state discipline, manifestations of sectional interests, mismanagement and encroachements on socialist property; promote improvements in the work of state machinery, etc. In P.C. activities, state control is combined with control by working people. At least once a year, P.C. groups and committees report the results of their activities to the work collectives (q. v.) 181 or local Soviets which established them.

By all their activities, P.C. bodies are obliged to contribute to improved work of enterprises, institutions, organisations, and ministries and departments, educating their employees in the spirit of strict observance of state discipline and socialist legality, preventing mistakes and omissions in their work, and seeking to eliminate the deficiencies which have been found. Persons guilty of the violations and deficiencies found can be brought to account by people's control bodies, either by means of comradely criticism or by the institution of legal proceedings against them in conformity with the law.

If violations are found, P.C. committees have the following powers: to approach the managements of enterprises and institutions, or higher authorities, raising the question of cancellation of the orders made by officials in violation of the lawful interests of enterprises, institutions or organisations, or infringing upon citizens' rights; to suspend the implementation of illegal orders made by officials; penalise the persons guilty of violations of the law; levy monetary penalties; remove from office the officials whose activities have resulted in upsetting the implementation of Party and government decisions, or in gross violations of state discipline and socialist legality. Materials concerning thefts, abuses and other illegal activities by officials, found in the course of inspections and resulting in criminal responsibility, are submitted by the P.C. committees to the Procurator's Office (q. v.).

P.C. groups are entitled to: access, during inspections, to documents and materials describing the state of affairs at the facilities being inspected and the state of their financial and economic activity; on the basis of inspection results, hear reports by persons guilty of failure to meet established planned targets or of other violations; and raise questions ensuing from inspection results with relevant state administrative bodies.

The law obligates officials to consider the proposals and recommendations made by P.C. bodies without delay, to eliminate the deficiencies and violations which 182 have been found, and to report the results within established periods to P.C. bodies. Actions impeding the exercise by members of P.C. bodies of the responsibilities entrusted to them, or their persecution in connection with their activities, entail criminal responsibility for the parties committing such actions.

The CPSU attaches major importance to the activities of P.C. bodies. In January 1980, the CPSU Central Committee promulgated a decision on measures for further improvement of the activities of P.C. bodies and the strengthening of Party guidance thereof in connection with the adoption of the Law on People's Control in the USSR. The decision notes that the law now in effect is an important step in the implementation of the constitutional provisions as regards further expansion and development of socialist democracy, improved state administration and control. The P.C. bodies play the growing role in monitoring the activities in all branches of the economy.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ People's Control Committee

---see People's Control.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ People's Courts

---see Courts.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ People's Deputy.

"Deputies are the plenipotentiary representatives of the people in the Soviets of People's Deputies.

``In the Soviets, Deputies deal with matters relating to state, economic, and social and cultural development, organise implementation of the decisions of the Soviets, and exercise control over the work of state bodies, enterprises, institutions and organisations.

``Deputies shall be guided in their activities by the interests of the state, and shall take the needs of their constituents into account and work to implement their electors`mandates'' (Art. 103 of the Constitution of the USSR).

In connection with the adoption of the new Constitution of the USSR, and for the purpose of raising further the authority of the Soviets and of P.D.s, and expanding their influence on all aspects of the social, economic, political and ideological life of developed 183 socialist society, in 1979 the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted the new text of the Law on the Status of People's Deputies. It defines the political and legal status of Deputies as the plenipotentiary representatives of the people in the Soviets, their interrelationship with the electorate, work collectives (q. v.), state bodies and non-government organisations (q. v.).

The Constitution of the USSR and the Law on the Status of People's Deputies clearly lay down the powers of P.D.s and define the guarantees of their activities which provide wide scope for their initiative and creative effort. In all their activities Deputies are guided by the policy of the Party, contributing by their efforts to the implementation of its decisions. It is for this puprose that the electors give them their mandate.

Art. 104 of the Constitution of the USSR says: "Deputies shall exercise their powers without discontinuing their regular employment or duties.

``During sessions of the Soviet, and so as to exercise their Deputy's powers in other cases stipulated by law, Deputies shall be released from their regular employment or duties, with retention of their average earnings at their permanent place of work.'' At present, there are 2,300,000 Deputies in the Soviets at all levels, people coming from various social groups and occupations (see Supreme Soviet of the USSR).

In accordance with his rights, the P.D. participates in the work of the Soviet on matters related to the direction of all aspects of state, economic, social and cultural development, in the decision-making in the Soviet and in the supervision of the implementation of such decisions, and in exercising control over the work of state bodies, enterprises and organisations.

Taking into account the mandates of their constituents, which reflect the latter's various requirements and interests, is one of the basic duties of P.D.s (see--- Electors 'Mandates).

P.D. also considers requests and complaints (q. q. v.) of the working people and promotes just and timely settlement of issues raised by his constituents.

The conditions required by the Deputies for 184 unimpeded and effective exercise of their rights and responsibilities are guaranteed by the Constitution of the USSR. Deputies have the right to approach state bodies and officials who are obliged to answer at a session of the Soviet.

P.D.s have the right to approach any government or non-government body, enterprise, and organisation on matters arising from their work as P.D.s and to take part in considering the questions raised by these bodies. The heads of such bodies are obliged to receive P.D.s without delay and to consider their proposals within the established time-limits.

Deputies of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and of the Supreme Soviets of the Union and Autonomous republics have the right to initiate legislation, i.e., to submit bills to the Supreme Soviets of which they are members.

The law establishes the responsibility of persons impeding the exercise of the powers by P.D.s or encroaching on their honour or dignity. The immunity of P.D.s is guaranteed. They shall not be dismissed from work, or subjected to criminal proceedings, arrested or subjected to administrative penalties imposed in judicial proceedings, without the consent of the corresponding Supreme Soviet (its Presidium) or local Soviet, and in-between sessions without the consent of their executive committees.

P.D.s conduct their activities in close contact with the population. Active proponents of the policy of the Party and the Soviet state, they are called upon to popularise and clarify Party and government decisions and organise their implementation by the constituents, contributing to the development of the work and political activity of the masses. Various activities are organised for the purpose, including conferences, meetings, discussions, accounts to the electorate, press publications, and radio and television appearances. All of these represent an important channel for public opinion (q. v.) analysis and an effective means of promoting closer links between the Deputies and the population. Work collectives and social organisations, acting in accordance with constitutional norms, assist 185 Deputies in their work and have the right to recall P.D.s who have not justified the confidence of their constituents (see Recall of Deputies).

__ALPHA_LVL2__ People's Incomes.

Art. 23 of the USSR Constitution reads: "The state pursues a steady policy of raising people's pay levels and real incomes through increase in productivity.'' This policy makes it possible to attain the supreme goal of socialist production fixed by the Constitution---"the fullest possible satisfaction of the people's growing material, and cultural and intellectual requirements" (Art. 15). P.I. are one of the chief indicators of their standard of living. They are comprised of means received in monetary and other forms, and benefits and services provided free of charge. The USSR Constitution (Art. 13) stresses that earned income forms the basis of the personal property of citizens (q. v.).

P.I. are directly linked to socialist production being a part of the national income, i.e. the material wealth produced over a certain period of time (a year). In a socialist society people receive their share of the social product, which they use to statisfy their personal needs, in the form of income, depending on the quantity and quality of labour they have contributed; as payments and benefits from the social consumption funds (q. v.); and as incomes derived from personal subsidiary small-holdings (q. v.). The forms of P.I. are many and varied: money (wages and salaries, pensions, benefits, scholarships, the monetary part of collective farmmers' payment, interest on credit, winnings in loans and lotteries); incomes in kind (i.e. payment in kind to collective farmers, the produce yielded by the personal subsidiary small-holdings). Apart from their individual incomes, the people's needs are satisfied through state institutions: hospitals, clinics and other health-building establishments; schools and other educational establishments; children's pre-school and extra-curricular facilities, libraries, etc., as well as through the use of state and social housing stock q. v.)

Monetary income and income in kind comprise 186 approximately 90 per cent of the Soviet population's real incomes.

The share and size of the P.I. derived from the national economy (state organisations and cooperatives) are steadily growing.

In accordance with the purpose of socialist production and the concrete goals of economic development, the Soviet state regulates the formation of the sources and the growth of people's real incomes. These incomes are steadily growing from one five-year plan to the next, and their level serves as the most general indicator of the rise in the standard of living in the country.

The growth of real incomes of the various social groups is accompanied by their levelling out. The real incomes of collective farmers per family member, as compared with those of factory and office workers, rose from 70 per cent in 1960 to 80 per cent in 1970 and to over 90 percent in 1984. In 1984, the average wages of factory and office workers reached 185 roubles. After including payments and benefits received from the social consumption funds, wages equalled 260 roubles. By the end of the Twelfth Five-Year Plan period, the annual monthly earmingsof factory and office workers will reach 215--220 roubles; the average monthly earnings of collective farmers will continue to grow at a rapid rate, reaching 180 roubles by 1990. The social consumption funds, which play a major role in the lives of Soviet people, will amount to over 600 rubles per capita in 1990.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Personal Freedom.

Under the Constitution of the USSR (Art. 57), citizens of the USSR have the right to personal freedom.

The existence of personal freedom depends on specific historical circumstances. Genuine personal freedom can be secured only in the socialist society, where private ownership of the means of production and exploitation of man by man have been eliminated, and social, class, national and other antagonisms removed. Socialism has not only secured P.P. but has also extended its scope. In the socialist state of the whole people, P.P. is guaranteed through broad 187 political rights and freedoms (freedom of speech, the press, assembly, meetings; the right to vote and be elected) as well as social rights absolutely indispensable for the exercise of personal freedom (the right to rest and leisure, education, health protection, maintenance in old age and in the event of disablility, etc.). The cornerstone of P.P. is freedom from exploitation and the possibility for each member of Soviet society to work for himself and for the community, which is made up of working people like himself. Another pillar of P.P. is the right to work, without which all other rights and freedoms are nothing but empty rhetoric. The CPSU and the Soviet state are doing everything necessary to make work not only a means of sustenance for Soviet citizens but also the main sphere in which their abilities and talents are given full play.

As social progress makes headway and new successes in socialist construction are achieved, the essence of P.P. broadens and becomes filled with new, deeper content. Important manifestations of this process include the drawing closer of all classes and social groups and the emergence of a classless social structure, which in its general and most essential features may be completed already within the historical framework of mature socialism. Greater social equality results in personal merit and initiative increasingly becoming the main criterion for assessing the individual's social worth and personal freedom. The inividual gradually liberates himself from material dependence; the satisfaction of his cultural requirements increases immeasurably, thus expanding the framework for his creative endeavour. People become increasingly free in giving full play to their abilities and in shaping their future.

Far from negating the collectivist approach, this presupposes the reinforcement of the collectivist Dunaations of everyday life. Article 20 of the USSR Constitution proclaims that in accordance with the communist ideal of the free development of each as the condition of the free development of all, the state pursues the aim of giving citizens more and more opportunities to apply their creative energies, 188 abilities and talents, and to develop their personality in every way. The unity and harmony beween public and personal interests, as well as the combination of the real rights and freedoms of the individual on the one hand, with the duties and responsibilities before society, the state, collective, and other citizens, on the other, represent the objective foundation of this process and a guarantee of its successful outcome.

P.P. in bourgeois societies, unlike that under socialism, is determined not by constitutional rights but primarily by capital or private property. In this sense, P.P. in a capitalist society is of a limited nature for all social strata, especially for the working people.

In an effort to discredit socialism's gains, the anticommunist propaganda machine has launched the idea of so-called absolute freedom which would impose no limits on the conduct of people, including conduct dangerous and harmful to society. However, this sort of freedom is not feasible in any society, including the capitalist one. This is but a propaganda ploy, designed to denigrate the socialist way of life and to mislead unstable and ideologically immature elements.

Maximal exercise of P.P. is possible through combining public and personal interests, and this is a feature of socialism.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Personal Property of Citizens.

"Earned income forms the basis of the personal property of Soviet citizens. The personal property of citizens of the USSR may include articles of everyday use, personal consumption and convenience, the implements and other objects of a small-holding, a house and earned savings. The personal property of citizens and the right to inherit it shall be protected by the state" (Art. 13 of the Constitution of the USSR).

The Fundamental Law stipulates that property owned or used by citizens shall not serve as a means of deriving unearned income or be employed to the detriment of the interests of society.

In socialist society, where the principle of distribution according to work done is in effect, the origins of personal property include the wages of industrial 189 and office workers, collective farmers' monetary income and income received from social consumption funds and personal subsidiary small-holdings (q. q. v.).

As social production develops, the real working people's incomes (q. v.) increase; correspondingly augmented is the P.P. of C., used for harmonious cultural development of people. As their educational and cultural level rises, along with the level of job skills, differences in income among individual social groups are reduced, with articles serving the aesthetic and intellectual needs accounting for an increasing share of personal property.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Personal Subsidiary Small-Holdings.

"Citizens may be granted the use of plots of land, in the manner prescribed by law, for a subsidiary small-holding ( including the keeping of livestock and poultry), for fruit and vegetable growing or for building a private dwelling. Citizens are required to make rational use of the land allotted to them. The state, and collective farms provide assistance to citizens in working their small-holdings" (Art. 13 of the Constitution of the USSR).

Work on P.S.S.-H. is a variety of labour activity by families of collective farmers, workers and other employees on the land plots granted them for their use. P.S.S.-H. produce about 33 per cent of the total agricultural output. In 1984, the share of income derived by collective-farm families from their P.S.S.-H. was about 30 per cent of their total income, or as much as over a third of the latter if the payments and other benefits from social consumption funds are subtracted.

The state and collective farms provide assistance to citizens in working their small-holdings by organising the sale of young livestock, fodder, seeds and fertilisers to them, by renting farm equipment for working the house and garden plots and by purchasing their surplus farm produce through the consumer cooperative system.

Besides, agricultural enterprises have been authorised to cover the costs of the provision of young cattle 190 to young families employed by the state and collective farms, and to assist such families in the construction of small-holding utility buildings.

The 12th Five-Year Plan envisages increased production of meat, milk, potatoes, vegetables and fruit in P.S.S.-H.

The produce and earnings derived from working the small-holdings are part of citizens' personal property; thus, the principle contained in Art. 13 of the Constitution, stipulating that property owned or used by citizens (in this particular case, land plots for smallholdings), shall not serve as a means of deriving unearned income, or be employed to the detriment of the interests of society, applies in full.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Political Foundation of the USSR.

Under the Constitution of the USSR, the political foundation of the country is constituted by Soviets of People's Deputies (q. v.) through which the people exercise state power (Art. 2).

The Soviets are the sole bodies of state authority, which is vested in them directly by the people. First emerging during the 1905 revolution as elective organs of workers, the Soviets asserted themselves after the victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution of 1917 as the P.F. of the world's first socialist state of workers and peasants. As a form of uniting all the people and expressing their interests and will, the Soviets have become organs of power open to all and functioning in plain view of the masses.

During the period of transition from capitalism to socialism, the P.F. of the Soviet state was constituted by Soviets of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies, which at the time were state bodies of class representation. When the foundations of socialism were built and the remnants of the exploiting classes eliminated, the Constitution of the USSR of 1936 (q. v.) determined that the P.F. of the Soviet country was constituted by Soviets of Working People's Deputies.

Under the present condition where on the basis of the drawing together of all classes and social strata 191 and of the juridical and actual equality of all its nations and nationalities and their fraternal cooperation, a new historical community of people---the Soviet people (q. v.)---has been formed, the P.P. of the USSR is constituted by the Soviets of People's Deputies, the principal instrument with the help of which the people exercise their plenary power. The Soviets' new designation in the Constitution of the USSR of 1977 (q. v.) reflects changes in Soviet society's class structure and the broader social base of the Soviet state, which has become a state of the whole people.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Political System of Soviet Society.

Under the Fundamental Law of the USSR, the P.S.S.S. "ensures effective management of all public affairs, ever more active participation of the working people in running the state, and the combining or citizens' real rights and freedoms with their obligations and responsibility to society" (Preamble to the Constitution of the USSR).

The P.S.S.S. is a complex of state and social organisations led by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (q. v.), which also comprises a part of it.

All Soviet Constitutions contain definitions of the nature of political power in society and of the democratic principles of its exercise. The 1977 Constitution for the first time devotes a special section to the P.S.S.S., dealing with principles underlying the structure, functioning and development of the Soviet political mechanism.

The P.S.S.S. reflects the unity and cohesion of the Soviet people in running the affairs of society and the state. It develops by interacting with the economic system and society's socio-political and cultural progress.

The principal institutions in the P.S.S.S. are the Communist Party, the state of the whole people, and social organisations, with each of them performing its specific functions in managing the affairs of society.

The socialist state of the whole people is the vehicle of the Soviet people's power and the mouthpiece for the will and interests of Soviet society's classes and social strata---workers, collective farmers and intellectuals, of all the country's nations and nationalities. Lenin 192 said, "Power over society is precisely state power.'' As socialist society improves, the foundations of the Soviet state's organisation and fuctioning become further strengthened. This primarily involves a greater role for the Soviets of People's Deputies (q. v.) as representative bodies of state authority. By relying on a large number of activists and the growing political awareness of the population, and maintaining close links with the grass roots, these bodies of popular representation fulfil their mission in an increasingly comprehensive and effective manner.

The state closely interacts with non-government organisations (q. v.), which, in accordance with the aims laid down in their rules, actively participate in running the country. Trade unions, the Young Communist League, cooperatives, voluntary societies and other social organisations represent and protect the interests of their members, and take part in discussing and deciding state and public affairs, in implementing the decisions taken, in electing Soviets of People's Deputies, and people's courts, and in carrying out people's control over the functioning of the administrative machinery, especially in the economic sphere. Social organisations are represented in the higher bodies of state authority.

The Constitution of the USSR has given a greater role to work collectives (q. v.)---the primary units of society's economic and political machinery. Work collectives take part in discussing and deciding matters of production and social development in their corresponding enterprises, institutions and organisations. At the same time, they take part in discussing and deciding state and public affairs. The extension of work collectives' rights and independence reflects the closer and more flexible combination of the functions of the state and society in managing social development.

The P.S.S.S. includes a broad use of methods of direct democracy---nationwide discussion (q. v.) and popular vote (referendum) (q. v.). Direct democracy complements and enriches representative democracy (the Soviets of People's Deputies) and contributes to __PRINTERS_P_193_COMMENT__ 13--1192 193 the involvement of the public at large in the country's social and political life.

Under the USSR's Fundamental Law, the leading and guiding force of Soviet society and the nucleus of its political system, and all state and social organisations is the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (q. v.).The CPSU determines the general perspectives of the development of society and the course of domestic and foreign policy, directs the great constructive work of the Soviet people. The revolutionary vanguard of the Soviet people, the Party is constantly striving to strengthen its ties with the masses and promote in an all-round fashion the development of Soviet society's democratic character.

The P.S.S.S. as a whole and its constituent elements function and develop on the basis of the USSR Constitution and Soviet legislation. On the other hand, the CPSU has its own Rules and Programme, and social organisations their own rules. Soviet society draws strength from the traditions of socialist democracy (q. v.). Greater openness and publicity (q. v.), as well as the study and account of public opinion (q. v.) play a great role in the functioning of the P.S.S.S.

A most important condition for the succesful development of the P.S.S.S. is the observance of the Leninist principles and standards of social and political life, and the Marxist-Leninist character of the Party of the working class and its leading role in society. The experience of world socialism demonstrates that departure from these principles and standards is fraught with grave consequences for socialism's further progress.

The developed socialist society creating the necessary objective prerequisites for comprehensive improvement of its P.S.S.S.

The major trend is to extend socialist democracy. This constitutional provision is primarily aimed at increasing working people's participation in deciding state and public affairs, multiplying the possibilities open to social organisations, and increasing their role, streamlining state administration, reinforcing legality and people's control over the functioning of public officials, consolidating the legal foundations of the state 194 and society, promoting open and principled criticism and self-criticism, and securing a greater role for publicity and public opinion.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Popular Vote (Referendum).

The USSR Constitution states: "Major matters of state shall be submitted to nationwide discussion and put to a popular vote (referendum)" (Art. 5).

The Constitution establishes that laws of the USSR are to be adopted by the USSR Supreme Soviet or by a P.V. (referendum). Art. 115 reads: "In the event of disagreement between the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities, the matter at issue shall be ... postponed for debate by the next session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR or submitted by the Supreme Soviet to a popular vote (referendum)'', if a conciliation commission formed by the chambers has not been able to settle it.

Passing the decision on holding a referendum on the all-Union level is the exclusive prerogative of the USSR Supreme Soviet. Under its Standing Orders adopted on April 19, 1979, this decision is to be drawn up as a resolution of the Supreme Soviet.

The possibility of a P.V. is provided for by the constitutions of nearly all socialist countries.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Preamble to the Constitution of the USSR

---see Constitution of the USSR of!977.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

"The Supreme Soviet of the USSR, at a joint sitting of its chambers, shall elect a Presidium or the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, which shall be a standing body of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, accountable to it for all its work and exercising the functions of the highest body of state authority of the USSR between sessions of the Supreme Soviet, within the limits prescribed by the Constitution" (Art. 119 of the Constitution of the USSR).

The P.S.S. of the USSR is elected from among the Deputies at the first session of the newly elected Supreme Soviet of the USSR at a joint sitting of the 195 Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities, with the Deputies of the two chambers voting together. The P.S.S. consists of a Chairman, First Vice-Chairman, 15 Vice-Chairmen (one from each Union republic), a Secretary and 21 members.

The P.S.S. of the USSR deals with a broad range of matters concerning the organisation of the USSR Supreme Soviet's activities and the exercise of highest state authority. It sets the date of election to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR; convenes sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR; co-ordinates the work of the standing committees of the chambers of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR; ensures observance of the Constitution of the USSR and conformity of the Constitutions and laws of Union Republics to the Constitution and laws of the USSR; interprets the laws of the USSR; revokes decisions and ordinances of the Council of Ministers of the USSR and of the Councils of Ministers of Union republics should they fail to conform to the law; institutes orders and medals of the USSR, and honorary titles of the USSR; awards orders and medals of the USSR, and confers honorary titles of the USSR. The P.S.S. of the USSR grants citizenship of the USSR; and rules on matters of the renunciation or deprivation of citizenship of the USSR and of granting asylum; and issues ail-Union acts of amnesty and exercises the right of pardon.

The P.S.S. of the USSR has the following powers in the sphere of defence: it forms the Council of Defence of the USSR and confirms its composition; appoints and dismisses the high command of the Armed Forces of the USSR; institutes military ranks and confers the highest military ranks; proclaims martial law in particular localities or throughout the country in the interests of defense of the USSR; orders general or partial mobilisation; between sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, proclaims a state of war in the event of an armed attack on the USSR, or when it is necessary to meet international treaty obligations relating to mutual defense against aggression.

The Constitution of the USSR gives the P.S.S. certain powers connected with the foreign-policy 196 activities of the Soviet state: the ratification and denunciation of international treaties of the USSR; the appointment and recall of diplomatic representatives of the USSR to other countries and to international organisations; the receipt of credentials and the letters of recall of the diplomatic representatives accredited to it; and the institution and conferring of diplomatic ranks. In accordance with Article 121 of the Constitution of the USSR, the P.S.S. also exercises other powers given to it by the Constitution and laws of the USSR. Certatin matters are subject to submission for confirmation at the next session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Using this procedure, the P.S.S. amends existing legislative acts of the USSR; approves changes in the borders between Union republics; forms and abolishes Ministries and State Committees of the USSR on the recommendation of the Council of Ministers of the USSR; relieves individual members of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of their responsibilities and appoints persons to the Council of Ministers on the recommendation of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR.

The P.S.S. of the USSR promulgates decrees and adopts decisions. When it deems it necessary, it sets up standing committees or ad hoc commissions to make a preliminary review of matters within its jurisdiction. These committees and commissions are made up of P.S.S. members, Deputies to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, as well as representatives of bodies of state authority, social organisations, work collectives and scientific institutions.

Upon expiry of the powers of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR the P.S.S. of the USSR retains its powers until a new Presidium is formed by the newly elected Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

The Chairman of the P.S.S. of the USSR directs the activities of the Presidium and its staff. The Chairman of the P.S.S. of the USSR convenes and chairs sittings of the Presidium; signs, together with the Secretary of the Presidium, laws, decrees, decisions and other acts adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and its Presidium; represents the USSR and the P.S.S. of the 197 USSR in foreign relations; receives credentials and letters of recall of accredited diplomatic representatives of foreign states; awards orders and medals and confers honorific titles of the USSR; and performs other functions normally associated with the head of state. During the Chairman's absence his functions are performed by the First Deputy or a Deputy.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Principles of the USSR's Relations with Other States.

Under the Constitution of the USSR (Art. 29), the USSR's relations with other states are based on observance of the following principles: sovereign equality; mutual renunciation of the use or threat of force; inviolability of frontiers; territorial integrity of states; peaceful settlement of disputes; non-intervention in internal affairs; respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms; the equal rights of peoples and their right to decide their own destiny; cooperation among states; and fulfilment in good faith of obligations arising from the generally recognised principles and rules of international law, and from the international treaties signed by the USSR.

The ten principles of the USSR's relations with other states included in the Constitution fully coincide with the ten principles of relations between states recorded in the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe signed in Helsinki on August 1, 1975, by 33 European states, the USA and Canada. This package of principles, which generalises many years' experience of international relations, was worked out on the basis of consensus with due account for the opinions and interests of all the participants in the European Conference. It represents the necessary minimum of commitments under international law, whose observance by all states can secure peaceful coexistence between the socialist and capitalist states (see Peaceful Coexistence of States with Different Social Systems).

The USSR is the first and so far the only country which has elevated the political commitment made in Helsinki to the status of a constitutional law. In doing so the Soviet Union fulfilled the participating 198 countries' intention, formulated in the Final Act of the European Conference, to build their relations with all other states in the Helsinki spirit.

The principles of the USSR's relations with other states laid down in the Soviet Constitution are essentially the principles of peaceful coexistence consistently and steadfastly advocated by the founder of the Soviet state, Lenin, principles for which the Soviet people continue to struggle to this day. It is hoped that their implementation will contribute to the creation of an atmosphere of mutual trust in relations between states, and promote confidence in the free, independent and peaceful development of every country.

In its foreign policy the Soviet Union strictly observes the just principles of international relations and pursues a principled and constructive policy of peaceful coexistence and mutually beneficial cooperation with other states. However, the developments of the last few years have shown that the Western countries have repeatedly violated the commitments they made in Helsinki, and that the list of violations is growing. The US administration's policy of stirring up international tensions, which it seeks to impose on its Western partners, threatens the security of the peoples of Europe and the world and undermines principles of peaceful coexistence between states with different social systems. Thus the Soviet Union and other socialist countries are compelled to do everything in their power to oppose these dangerous trends in international affairs and to settle all disputes by peaceful means with due account for the just principles of international relations.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ The Procurator's Office of the USSR.

"The agencies of the Procurator's Office exercise their powers indeppendently of any local bodies whatsoever, and are subordinate solely to the Procurator-General of the USSR.

``The organisation and procedure of the agencies of the Procurator's Office are defined in the Law on the Procurator's Office of the USSR" (Art. 168 of the USSR Constitution).

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Represented by the Procurator-General and procurators subordinate to him, the Procurator's Office of the USSR exercises supreme power of supervision over the strict and uniform observance of laws (q. v.) by all ministries, state committees and departments, enterprises, institutions and organisations, executiveadministrative bodies of local Soviets of People's Deputies, collecitve farms, cooperatives and -other non-government organisations (q. v.), officials and citizens.

In accordance with the tasks set before it, the Procurator's Office performs the following main functions: supervision of the observance of laws by bodies of state administration, enterprises, institutions and organisations, officials and individual citizens (general supervision); supervision of the observance of laws by agencies of inquiry and preliminary investigation; supervision of trie observance of laws in the course of hearings of cases in courts (q. v.); supervision of the observance of laws in places of confinement, in places of preliminary detention, as well as in the course of serving punishment and other coercive measures imposed by courts.

The procurator's offices are charged with combating crime and other offences, investigating crimes, bringing to trial persons who have committed crimes, working out, in collaboration with other state bodies, measures for preventing crime and other offences, coordinating the activities of law enforcement agencies in combating offences, and participating in improving legislations and the propaganda or Soviet laws.

The procurator's offices represent a centralised and uniform system.

The procurator's offices are guided by principles of socialist legality (q. v.), the Constitution of the USSR, the Constitutions of the Union and Autonomous republics, and other laws. In fulfilling their functions the procurator's offices cooperate with Soviets of People's Deputies, other state bodies, social organisations and work collectives (q. v.), and draw on the active support of citizens in strengthening law and order.

200 __ALPHA_LVL2__ Protection of the Environment.

In accordance with Art. 18 of the Constitution of the USSR, in the interests of the present and future generations, the necessary steps are taken in the USSR to protect and make scientific, rational use of the land and its mineral and water resources, and the plant and animal kingdoms, to preserve the purity of air and water, ensure reproduction of natural wealth, and improve the human environment.

The scientific and technological revolution is contributing to the accelerated development of industry, energy, transport, broad use of chemicals in agriculture and at home, and simultaneously results in the modification and, in a number of cases, disruption and pollution of the environment: air, water and soil. The process is especially widespread in the capitalist countries. Capitalism, with its predatory attitude, has turned nature into an object of unbridled exploitation.

In a socialist society, P.E. is considered to be a matter of top priority. It is hoped to achieve harmony between the rapid growth of science and technology, on the one hand, and a sparing attitude towards nature, on the other. The key provisions, regulations and standards concerning P.E., as well as necessary economic and legal guarantees and sanctions, are regulated by the Soviet state in corresponding laws and other acts of legislation.

The CPSU and the Soviet Government strive to step up state supervision concerning implementation of decisions on P.E. and the introduction of new measures to protect the environment. For example, Decree of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers On Additional Measures to Strengthen Environmental Protection and Improve the Utilisation of Natural Resources (December 1978) calls for creating conditions for carrying out comprehensive measures of environmental protection, broadening technical and economic research into the improvement of the environment and the rational use of natural resources, etc. In June 1980 the session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted the laws On Air Protection ami 201 On the Protection and Use of the Animal World. This in effect established a legal regime for practically all elements of the natural environment: land, water, forests, mineral resources, air and the animal kingdom.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Protection of Rights and Freedoms of Cititzens.

Art. 57 of the USSR Constitution reads, in part: "Respect for the individual and protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens are the duty of all state bodies, social organisations and officials.''

The Soviet state and all its bodies function on the basis of socialist legality (q. v.) and ensure the protection of law and order (q. v.), the interests of society and the rights and freedoms of citizens.

Officials are obliged to examine the complaints and requests (q. q. v.) of citizens within the time limits established by law, provide answers and take necessary measures. Actions by officials that contravene the law, exceed their powers or infringe upon the rights of citizens may be appealed against in a court in the manner prescribed by law. Citizens of the USSR have the right to court protection (q. v.) against encroachments against their honour and reputation, life and health, and personal freedom and property. The Constitution of the USSR and a special Decree 6f the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (1981) provide for the right to compensation for damages (q. v.) resulting from unlawful actions by state organisations and social organisations, or by officials in the performance of their duties.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Public Education.

"In the USSR there is a uniform system of public education, which is being constantly improved, that provides general education and vocational training for citizens, serves the communist education and intellectual and physical development of the youth, and trains them for work and social activity" (Art. 25 of the Constitution of the USSR).

At all stages of socialist development, the CPSU and the Soviet Government have always paid close attention to the development and improvement of P.E. Lenin's theory and the practice of the cultural 202 revolution during the building of socialism proceeded from the premise that it was necessary not just to eradicate illiteracy in the country but also to involve the broadest masses of the working people in all kinds and forms of education. Lenin noted that the building of a communist society requires a radical restructuring of instruction, organisation and education of young people. This principle of Lenin is unswervingly followed by the Party and the Government.

One of the social rights of cititzens established by the Constitution of the USSR is the right to education; the guarantees of this right have been significantly strengthened and expanded. The right is ensured by free provision of all forms of education, by the institution of universal, compulsory secondary education, and the broad development of vocational, specialised secondary, and higher education, in which instruction is oriented towards practical activity and production; by the development of correspondence and evening courses; by the provision of state scholarships and grants and privileges for students; by the free use of school textbooks; by the opportunity to attend a school where teaching is in the native language; and by the provision of facilities for self-education (Art. 45 of the Constitution of the USSR). Compared to the 1936 Constitution the 1977 Constitution envisages the right of citizens to choose their trade or profession, type of job and work in accordance witn their inclinations, abilities, training and education, with due account of the needs of society (Art. 40 of the Constitution of the USSR).

Major economic changes which have taken place over the years of existence of the Soviet state, and substantial improvements in the well-being of the people, have created the material basis for the development of culture (q. v.) in Soviet society. In the course of the life of one generation, illiteracy was eradicated in the country. During the existence of the Soviet state, 88.2 million have acquired secondary (general and specialised) education. In the school year 1982/1983, over 106 million people, or every one out of three citizens of this country, were involved in various education 203 programmes. In the school year 1982/1983, 44.5 million people attended general secondary schools, over 4 million attended vocational schools, including 2.4 million in technical secondary schools, 4.5 million ---specialised secondary schools, and 5.3 million---higher schools. Over the period from 1966 through 1980 alone, 60.3 million people acquired secondary (general and specialised) education, 2.2 times as many as those who did so over all previous years of existence of the Soviet state taken together. From 1918 through 1980, 26.5 million people graduated from specialised secondary schools, and 16.5 million completed their higher education.

Substantial funds are spent annually by the Soviet state on the development of public education. The annual expenditure per student is about 200 roubles in general secondary schools, 700 roubles in specialised secondary schools and over 1,000 roubles in higher schools. In 1980, over 8.6 billion roubles were allocated from the national budget for the systematic expansion of training of specialists and skilled workers.

The basic principles of P.E., including equal rights of all citizens to acquire an education, free choice of the language of instruction, uniformity of the public education system and the continuity of teaching throughout all types of schools, and the unity of instruction and communist education, are stipulated by Soviet legislation (The Fundamentals of the USSR and the Union Republics on Public Education), based on the Constitution of the USSR.

The uniform system of P.E. in the USSR comprises pre-school education, extra-school education, general secondary eduction, vocational education, and specialised secondary and higher education. All the forms of public education are based on common principles and pursue the goal of communist education and the training of skilled specialists.

The CPSU Central Committee and the Council of Ministers of the USSR have adopted a number of decisions, including that on further improvement of instruction and education for general secondary school students and their preparation for work (1977), that 204 on further development of higher schools and raising the quality of training of specialists (1979), etc.

The public education system has completed the transition to compulsory universal secondary education. The main goal of public education is to improve the equality of instruction. Envisaged for the llth Five-Year Plan period were fuller satisfaction of the country's requirements in specialists and skilled workers; greater efficiency of all elements and forms of education and training; improved forms and methods of work, ethical and aesthetic education at secondary schools; more effective career guidance for the youth. In this period the network of vocational schools was expanded further, with the number of their graduates in 1981 through 1985 to reach 13 million; 1.6 times as many skilled workers with a secondary education were trained; and over ten million people completed their higher and specialised secondary eduction. The Communist Party highlights the need for improving the quality of teaching, establishing more solid links between science and production, making fuller use of the potential of the higher schools, which now employ almost half of all Doctors and Candidates of Science; also stresses the importance of planning higher school education on the basis of demand for graduates in the economy. In accordance with the guidelines adopted by the June 1983 Plenary Meeting of the CPSU Central Committee, a reform of general secondary and vocational schools is to take place, aimed at improving the schools' activities to correspond to the conditions and requirements of developed socialist society.

State administration in P.E. is effected through Union-republic bodies of the USSR and of the Union republics, i.e., Ministries of Education, State Committees for Vocational Training, and Ministries of Higher and Specialised Secondary Education. Some schools are directed by other ministries or departments.

The executive committees of local Soviets, acting through bodies which they establish for the purpose, supervise the educational establishments subordinated to them and take measures to expand their material and technical facilities.

205 __ALPHA_LVL2__ Public Health.

"Citizens of the USSR shall have the right to health protection" (Art. 42 of the USSR Constitution).

The right is ensured through free, qualified medical care provided by state health institutions; through extension of the network of therapeutic and healthbuilding institutions; through the development and improvement of safety and hygiene in industry; through the carrying out of broad preventive measures; through measures to improve the environment; through special care for the health of the rising generation, including prohibition of child labour, excluding the work done by children as part of the school curriculum; and through research into the prevention and reduction of the incidence of disease, which ensures citizens a long and active life.

The USSR is the first country in the world where the state has undertaken to provide health care for the people. Among its social goals, the protection of the health of Soviet people is of paramount importance. Established over the Soviet years, the network of therapeutic and preventive care facilities is constantly developing. Spending on health care is rising from one five-year plan to the next; from 1965 to 1979 alone, expenditures for the purpose from the state budget, enterprise and collective-farm funds have grown by more than 2.5 times. Annual P.H. outlays account for 5 to 6 per cent of the national budget. Public health care in the USSR is the most prominent item of expenditure from the social consumption funds, accounting for almost a third of their volume. Currently at work in the USSR are over 1.1 million doctors, or more than one out of every three doctors in the world, and over 3 million intermediate-level medical workers. The 1980 data on the number of doctors per 10,000 people (the USSR average-37.4; Uzbekistan-28.6; Kazakhstan-31.7; Kirghizia-29.1; Turkmenia---27.9; Tajikistan---23.4; as vs. the FRG with 25.9, the US with 22.5, Britain with 16.4, France with 15.3, and Japan with 16.2) provide convincing proof that the Central Asian republics, which before the October Revolution had virtually no professional 206 medical services, now are ahead of many developed capitalist countries as to this index. In 1984, the number of hospital beds exceeded 3.5 million. Over 110 million people have periodical medical checkups. In one shift, Soviet clinics can serve 500 thousand patients more than what they could just five years before. Specialised medical care and cardiological care have received a major boost. Over the same period, the medical facilities were provided with 1.5 times more equipment and instruments than previously, while the availability of medicines and medical supplies increased almost 1.4 times. Major centres for carrying out research in cardiology, oncology, surgery and motherand-child health protection have been built with funds from work-for-the-nation days and are now operational.

The cost of medical care is borne by the state. For instance, it provides an allowance of 10 roubles per day per hospital patient and pays sick leave benefits of up to 100 per cent of their wages to the vast majority of workers.

In 1986--1990, it is planned to considerably improve the quality of health service and introduce countrywide regular preventive medical checkups of the population.

The situation is altogether different in capitalist countries, where health care is a lucrative business which cleans out the working man's pocketbook. In the United States, for instance, the grand total spent by the population on medical care is higher than the total amount spent on clothing, footwear and their repair and dry-cleaning. Due to the high cost of medical services, according to the US press, one out of every two Americans, when fallen sick, do not see a doctor for treatment.

Recent years have seen a marked improvement in the availability of the latest medical equipment for rehabilitation and preventive care facilities in the Soviet Union. Treatment and rehabilitation are provided to Soviet people by the state. In 1984, 63 millon workers and their family members have used health and vacation centres and tourist retreats. The state and the trade unions show constant concern for job safety and 207 safe working conditions. As a result, the incidence of work-related injuries and occupational disease is steadily falling.

The measures taken by the Communist Party and the state in the field of P.H. have had a favorable influence on the health of the Soviet people. During Soviet years mortality rates, particularly among infants, have fallen. Many dangerous infectious diseases have been eliminated. At present, the average life expectancy is around 70 years, as compared to 32 in 1913.

Special care is taken by the Soviet state for the health of the younger generation. For this purpose a ramified system of specialised medical facilities has been established (in 1984 there were over 27 thousand maternity advice bureaus, and children's outpatient clinics and polyclinics). Jointly with educational authorities these monitor the state of children's health care and health-building measures taken by schools and other children's facilities.

Women are provided assistance in childcare (see Mothers and Children). Most of the expenditure connected with the maintenance of children in creches and kindergartens, or 80 per cent of the total, is met by the state, trade union organisations and collective farms. The law allows leaves of absence from work for the purpose of caring for one's sick child, with benefits payable under the social security (q. v.) scheme.

To protect the health of the population, hygienic requirements have been established on the basis of relevant legislation concerning the planning and building of communities, housing occupancy rates, community water supply, etc.

The administration of health care is effected by the USSR Ministry of Health and by the Health Ministries of the Union and Autonomous republics.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Public Opinion.

According to the Constitution of the USSR (Art. 9) constant responsiveness to P.O. is one of the ways to further extend socialist democracy.

Greater openness and publicity (q. v.), along with better information about various developments in the life of the state and society, produce a response 208 reaction which is expressed in the attitude of the people to facts and events, their assessments of and judgements concerning individual decisions or actions. P.O. is a form of the expression of popular will or that of an individual social strata. Responsiveness to P.O. is of central importance for the functioning of the political system of the Soviet society (q. v.). Lenin wrote, "... we can administer only when we express correctly what the people are conscious of''.

The USSR and other socialist countries have recently been actively involved in P.O. research. Scientific methodologies of this research have been worked out and are being continually improved. Findings of P.O. research provide information about sentiments prevailing in the social strata under study, and about the level of political culture and specific interests of different categories of the working people. P.O. helps the Party and state bodies to take into account the society's interests in performing their duties and drawing up state plans and drafting legislation.

There is every condition for the democratic functioning of P.O. in the socialist society. The country's broad information network is complemented by the opportunity for the citizens to freely express their views and by special public opinion polls (using questionnaires, public debates, etc.). The effective functioning of P.O. is directly connected with the principles of MarxismLeninism.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Public Order.

"A citizen of the USSR is obliged to respect the rights and lawful interests of other persons, to be uncompromising toward anti-social behaviour, and to help maintain public order" (Art. 65 of the USSR Constitution). Public order is maintained by the Council of Ministers of the USSR within its terms of reference (Art. 131). Within their territory, maintenance of law and order is ensured by local Soviets of People's Deputies (Art. 146).

P.O. is essentially maintained through educational work and by inculcating Soviet citizens with respect for norms of socialist behaviour, the socialist way of life and Soviet laws (legal education). The primary __PRINTERS_P_209_COMMENT__ 14--1192 209 aim of this education is to prevent breaches of law and public order. P.O. is also ensured by means of special organisational measures to coordinate and supervise the activities of enterprises and institutions in the spheres of trade, public catering, communal services, public utilities, transport and communications, and sport so that they conform to the conditions of work, life, rest and leisure of the population in a given area under normal conditions and under conditions of mass activities (demonstrations, marches, major sporting events, etc.) and especially in emergencies (fires, floods, earthquakes, and the like).

In accordance with Soviet legislation, public and official measures of persuasion and coercion are applied to persons responsible for breaches of P.O. Official coercive measures may be penal, administrative or disciplinary. Law enforcement organs (militia) and the public (volunteer public order squads) play an important role in maintaining P.O.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Publicity.

According to the Constitution, greater publicity is part of a further extension of socialist democracy (Art. 9).

P. implies informing the population through the mass media and other means of information about the establishment and activity of government and nongovernment bodies, and about the decisions and orders passed by them.

P. is one of the principle underlying the work of the Soviets of People's Deputies (q. v.).

Proceedings in all courts of the USSR are open to the public (with the exception of cases established by the law); court judgements and decisions are invariably announced publicly (see Courts).

The principle of P. is observed in all fields of the country's political and social life: in the work of people's control (q. v.), in socialist competition (q. v.), etc. Greater P. ensures stricter control on the part of the people over the activity of government and nongovernment bodies and that decisions are adopted and tasks fulfilled in conformity with the will and interests of the people; it is also an effective way to 210 __FIX__ Replace "P." with publicity using a colored background to indicate term being defined; in this case, "P" should be "p". __NOTE__ Renamed: /usr/share/emacs/21.4/lisp/newcomment.elc _> /usr/share/emacs/21.4/lisp/newcomment.elcc ...because it's so annoying. strengthen contacts between the CPSU and the people. The principle of P. has been legally established not only by Soviet legislation, but also by constitutions and legislative acts currently in force in other socialist countries.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Punishment for Criminal Offence.

Under Art. 160 of the USSR Constitution, "No one may be ... subjected to punishment as a criminal except by the sentence of a court and in conformity with the law.''

Only a court of law, having considered the criminal case as court of first instance, may, by passing sentence, subject a person to punishment as a criminal; no other state body, being outside the judicial system of the USSR, has this right.

Only a person who has committed a crime may be subjected to punishment as a criminal. Under the criminal law, an offence is a socially dangerous action, or inaction, which encroaches upon the social system of the USSR, its political and economic systems, socialist property, the person and the political, labour, property and other rights and freedoms of citizens, or any other socially dangerous act which infringes the socialist law and order (q. v.). Punishment for specific types of crime is established by laws passed by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Supreme Soviets of the Union republics, as well as by decrees promulgated by their Presidiums.

The types of punishment are defined by legislative acts of the USSR and of Union republics. Basic penalties include: deprivation of liberty; exile; restricted residence; corrective labour without deprivation of liberty; deprivation of the right to hold specified offices or engage in specified activity; fine; social censure, and for servicemen, assignment to a disciplinary battalion. Apart from these basic penalties, the following supplementary penalties may be applied; confiscation of property, and deprivation of military or special rank. Application of the death penalty is an exceptional measure of punishment.

Punishment for a criminal offence is not only the retribution which follows a criminal act, but also a 211 means of correcting and re-educating the convicted persons, helping them to develop an honest attitude to work, become aware of the necessity to observe laws and learn to respect the rules of socialist community life. It also serves as a means of preventing both the offenders and other persons from committing a crime.

Soviet law-enforcement bodies ensure that along with the strict punitive measures applied to dangerous criminals, humane measures are meted out to first offenders who do not constitute a danger to society. They are often subjected to punishment which does not involve deprivation of liberty, or to measures of public influence. In an effort to correct and re-educate offenders, the law enlists the assistance of mass organisations, work collectives, minors commissions and comrades' courts. Offenders may also be released from criminal responsibility and instead dealt with through administrative measures.

Soviet criminal law, criminal procedure law, and corrective-labour legislation are oriented towards ever more differentiated approach to the invidualisation of criminal punishment and its execution in order to achieve the best possible result in crime control in Soviet society.

[212] __ALPHA_LVL1__ R __ALPHA_LVL2__ Recall of Deputies.

The Constitution of the USSR states that deputies who have not justified the confidence of their constituents may be recalled at any time by decision of a majority of the electors in accordance with the procedure established by law (Art. 107). By the same token, Article 152 declares that judges and people's assessors may be recalled by their electors or the bodies that elected them in the manner prescribed by law. Similar norms are to be found in the Constitutions of Union and Autonomous republics. The R.D. of Soviets is regulated in a comprehensive manner by laws governing the procedure of the R.D. of the Supreme and local Soviets.

The right to initiate the motion for recalling a Deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR is vested in organisations or the CPSU, trade unions, the Young Communist League, cooperative and other social organisations as represented by their organs (ail-Union, district, city and ward, as well as work collectives and meetings of servicemen in military units).

Organisations which initiate the motion for R.D. inform the Deputy concerned to this effect, explaining the motives for this action. The Deputy can provide an oral or written explanation to them concerning these motives. Decisions of the organisations which have instituted proceedings to recall the Deputy are submitted to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, which, upon considering the materials thus submitted, hands them over to the credentials committee of the corresponding chamber of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR for a decision. If the matter of R.D. has been brought up in accordance with the requirements of the law, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR names the date for a vote on R.D. After the date for the vote has been fixed, social organisations, work collectives and any citizen of the USSR can canvass for R.D. or against it. A constituency-level electoral commission is set up to conduct the voting and determine its results 213 in the manner similar to that of setting up electoral commissions at constituencies.

To discuss the matter of R.D. and decide upon it, social organisations convene meetings of electors at places of work, service or residence. Decisions are made by a show of hands, and a Deputy is considered to be recalled if a majority of electors of the given constituency has voted for the recall.

The legislation of Union and Autonomous republics regulates the R.D. of the Supreme and local Soviets as well as people's judges of district (city) people's courts in these republics in a similar manner. People's assessors of district (city) people's courts can be recalled at meetings of work collectives or meetings of electors in districts which originally elected them.

R.D. also exists in the Constitutions and legislation of most other socialist countries.

In capitalist countries legislation normally does not provide for recalling deputies and other elected officials before the expiry of their term in office. This is due to the desire to make elective state bodies independent of the electorate control, especially that of the working majority.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Request.

"Officials are obliged, within established time-limits, to examine citizens' proposals and requests, to reply to them, and to take appropriate action" (Art. 49 of the USSR Constitution).

A request is an official application by a citizen (or a group of citizens) made to a state or social organisation concerning the realisation of some right or lawful interest.

The procedure and time-limits for the examination of requests are regulated by the Decree of the USSR Supreme Soviet Presidium of April 12, 1968 on the Procedure of the Examination of Citizens' Proposals, Requests and Complaints (as amended by the Decree of the USSR Supreme Soviet Presidium of March 4, 1980). Under the Decree, R.s are to be submitted by citizens to state bodies, enterprises, organisations or officials empowered to settle the matter at issue. Bodies and their officials who are not in a position 214 to deal with issues set forth in the R. should forward the R. not later than within five days of reception, to the pertinent body, notifying the applicant thereof or, if the R. has been submitted personally, explaining to him where to apply for an answer.

In reviewing a R., the official is obliged to study it carefully; apply for necessary documents, send a representative to the locality to inquire into the matter in question, or take other steps which will allow him to reach an objective conclusion, pass a substantiated resolution on the request, ensure that appropriate action is taken, as well as inform the applicant of the decision (or, if the R. has been denied, give grounds for it).

A citizen dissatisfied with the decision is entitled to appeal to a higher body. The time-limit established for the review of a request is one month, and if a request does not require additional examination and verification, it is to be considered without delay, or at least within 15 days after it was received by the competent body. In cases where verification, additional materials or other measures are required in order to reach a competent decision, the time-limit may, as an exception, be extended by the head of the corresponding body, but may not exceed one month; the person who has submitted the request or complaint should be informed about the delay.

The Party considers citizens' letters and proposals to be a valuable link with the people. This is one of the more confidential and valuable sources of information about the needs and requirements of rural and urban dwellers.

Officials and administrators who allow bureaucratism and red tape when considering citizens' requests are personally responsible; the publicity is ensured, when examining critical remarks made by working people and an opportunity provided for them to discuss these remarks at meetings at enterprises and organisations, and at farmers'gatherings.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Revocation of the Citizenship of the USSR

---see Citizenship of the USSR.

215 __ALPHA_LVL2__ Right of Asylum.

"The USSR grants the right of asylum to foreigners persecuted for defending the interests of the working people and the cause of peace, or for participation in the revolutionary and national-liberation movement, or for progressive social and political, scientific or other creative activity" (Art. 38 of the USSR Constitution).

The R.A., defined in its genuinely democratic sense, was provided for already in the March 28, 1918 decree of the All-Russia Central Executive Committee, and subsequently elevated to the rank of a constitutional principle: it was written into the 1918 Constitution of the RSFSR, the constitutions of the Union republics after the formation of the USSR and the 1936 USSR Constitution (Art. 129). In accordance with that article, R.A. was granted to foreign nationals (q. v.) persecuted for defending the interests of the working people, or their scientific activity, or participation in the national-liberation movement. The concept of R.A. was further elaborated in the 1977 Constitution of the USSR. Persons granted R.A. in the USSR are entitled to almost all of the basic rights and freedoms enjoyed by Soviet citizens.

Matters of granting R.A. are decided by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR or the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of a Union republic.

The USSR has granted R.A. to many prominent figures in the international communist and workers' movement, as well as workers of culture, scientists, etc.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Rights and Freedoms of Citizens

---see Basic Rights and Freedoms of Citizens.

[216] __ALPHA_LVL1__ S __ALPHA_LVL2__ Science.

"In accordance with society's needs the state provides for planned development of science and the training of scientific personnel and organises introduction of the results of research in the economy and other spheres of life" (Art. 20 of the Constitution of the USSR).

S. is a form of social consciousness; it is a system of knowledge of the laws of development of nature and society. Under socialism, for the first time ever, the development of science has become a matter of state significance. Providing the Party with a scientifically substantiated programme of socialist and communist development, Lenin taught that the Soviet system, the most progressive system in the world, relies in its development on the productive forces which embody the latest achievements in science and technology.

The development of productive forces, more efficient social production and higher productivity, advanced spiritual culture and material well-being of the Soviet people are now increasingly determined by scientific and technological progress. On an increasing scale, S. is becoming a force directly involved in production.

Socialism offers particularly favourable opportunities for the development of S. and comprehensive use of scientific discoveries in the attainment of fundamental social and economic goals. A role of major importance is acquired by fundamental research, which gains increasing influence on S. and technology and accelerates the transition of the economy to the path of intensive development. The leading role in the development of basic S. in the USSR is played by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Its tasks include defining the strategy of scientific quest, finding the most promising directions and organisational forms of research and new approaches to the development of S. and technology, and coordinating research activity in this country. One of the basic requisites of accelerated scientific and technological progress is the existence of 217 a close relationship between basic S. and applied S., research and development and technological studies conducted mainly by scientific establishments of branch ministries and departments. A number of specialised academies also work on major theoretical and applied problems and have the status of the highest research institutions in their respective fields; some examples of these are the Ail-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences, the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, and the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR. A major contribution to tne development of S., culture and education is made by academies of sciences, universities and numerous specialised scientific research institutions of the Union republics, and by the country's higher schools.

Soviet S. is in the forefront of scientific and technological progress. Having launched the first sputnik arid the first manned probe into outer space, the USSR launched an era of space research, paving the way to outer space for all mankind. Soviet scientists and experts were the first to use atomic energy for peaceful purposes and are now in the forefront of the effort to solve the problem of controlled thermonuclear fusion, a most important problem at the present stage. Works by Soviet scholars in such fields as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and others are known all over the world. New advances have been made in Marxist-Leninist S. The social scientists, guided by Lenin's heritage, concentrate on the social problems of the current era and on elaborating the conception of developed socialism.

The concern displayed by the Communist Party and the Soviet Government for the flourishing of S. in this country was graphically reflected in the Constitution of the USSR, the first ever reflection in legislation of the increasing role of S.

Under the Fundamental Law of the USSR (Art. 47), citizens of the USSR, in accordance with the aims of building communism, are guaranteed freedom of scientific, technical and artistic work, ensured by broadening scientific research, invention and innovation, by the provision of the necessary material 218 conditions for the purpose, and by legal protection of the rights of authors, inventors and innovators.

The CPSU and the Soviet Government are persistent in their activity aimed at combining in an organic whole the results of the revolution in S. and technology with the advantages offered by the socialist economic system. Decisions of Plenary Meetings of the CPSU Central Committee and those of Party Congresses stress the need for all-round scientific and technological progress, a closer link between S. and production, and a steadily increasing role of S. in developed socialist society.

The CPSU directs this country's scientists to increase the effectiveness of scientific research, to ensure more rapid practical application of the results of development of S. and technology, and to develop the links of fundamental and applied research with production. Attention is drawn to the need for expanded research and development and for integrated programmes, pooling the efforts of researchers and people involved in the production process, planning authorities and ministries, for the solution of scientific and technical problems of basic importance. Scientific-production associations, an effective form of combining science with production, are further developed. More than a few such associations already exist in this country, some examples being the Likhachov Auto Works in Moscow, the Optical Equipment Production Association and the Elektrosila Works in Leningrad, the Paton Institute in Kiev, etc. The associations are to become major centres for the development and manufacture of high quality products and for the improvement of technology and production process organisation.

Today, as Soviet people look ten or fifteen years ahead, they must not forget that in those years the economic structure the country will have in the 21st century will be established. It should embody the basic features and the ideals of the new society, be in the forefront of progress, and symbolise the integration of science and production, the unbreakable unity of creative thought and creative work.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Social Basis of the USSR.

Under Art. 19 of the USSR 219 Constitution, "The social basis of the USSR is the unbreakable alliance of the workers, peasants and intelligentsia.''

The social basis of a state depends on the social structure of society, i.e. its class composition and the relations among the classes and social groups. The criterion used when characterising the class composition of society is the well-known Marxist thesis that the class structure of a society and, consequently, its social basis are determined by the respective mode of production.

Public ownership of the means of production, which was established in Russia after the great October Socialist Revolution, put an end to the division of society into hostile, antagonistic classes. In the first years after the Revolution, the social basis of the Soviet state was the alliance of the proletariat and the poor peasantry. This was reflected in the 1918 Constitution of the. RSFSR, which stated that "a dictatorship of urban and rural proletariat in the form of strong all-Russia Soviet power" had been established in the republic.

In the second half of the 1930s, when the socialist economic system and socialist property established its undivided rule in the USSR, class relations in the country underwent a drastic change. The fact that socialism had been built in the Soviet Union meant that all the remnants of the exploiter classes had been ousted. At the same time, the social character of the class of small producers---self-employed peasants and individual handicraftsmen---was also transformed through their participation in the collective socialised economy.

All this combined to produce in the USSR a new class structure of society, typical of socialism. Soviet society was now comprised of two friendly classes---the working class and the collective-farm peasantry, whose existence was determined by the two forms of socialist ownership of the means of production (state and collective-farm-and-co-operative property), and the intelligentsia, a social group (stratum) closely linked to the working class and the peasantry. Art. I of the 1936 Constitution stated: "The Union of Soviet 220 Socialist Republics is a socialist state of workers and peasants.''

Class Composition of the Population (per cent) 1913 1924 1928 1939 1959 1978 1985 Workers and other employees, 17.0 14.8 17.6 50.2 68.3 84.9 87.6 including workers 14.6 10.4 12.4 33.5 49.5 61.8 61.6 Collectivefarm peasants and handicraftsmen united into co-ops* - 1.3 2.9 47.2 31.4 15.1 12.4 Self-employed peasants and individual handicraftsmen not united into co-ops 66.7 75.4 74.9 2.6 0.3------ Bourgeoisie, landowners, merchants and kulaks 16.3 8.5 4.6 - - - -- * In 1924, handicraftsmen united into co-ops---members of producer artels and the non-working members of their families made up 0.5 per cent of the total population, in 1928-1.2 per cent, and in 1939--- 2.3 per cent. Since 1959, they have been considered factory or office workers, since former producer artels have been transferred to the system of state enterprises and organisations.

While building developed socialism, the social basis of the USSR has expanded. The alliance of the working class and the collective-farm peasantry has grown stronger thanks to the closer political and ideological unity of these classes with the people's intelligentsia.

The considerable changes that have taken place in the numerical correlation of the social groups making up Soviet society were followed by deep qualitative changes in each of these groups.

Today, the working class (q. v.) comprises two-- 221 thirds of the country's gainfully employed population and consists of millions of trained, technically skilled and politically mature people. Their labour is steadily approaching that of engineers and technicians. Workers are taking an increasingly active part in public life and in managing state affairs.

The collective-farm peasants (q. v.) have also changed. Today's farmers were born and grew up on a collective farm, and their psychology has matured under socialism. They operate the most up-to-date agricultural machinery, and more often than not, their educational standard and way of life differ very little from thatof city-dwellers.

The intelligentsia (q. v.) in the Soviet Union is a truly socialist social group, and is a part of the Soviet people. As the cultural standard of the population rises and science comes to play an increasing role in the life of the country, the share of the intelligentsia in Soviet society also grows.

The source of all these changes is the drawing closer together of all classes and social groups of Soviet society. Class differences and essential distinctions between town and country and between mental and physical labour are being eliminated. This is an objective but not at all spontaneous process, regulated as it is by the social policy of the CPSU and the state.

The greater social homogeneity of society is also promoted by the two forms of socialist property---state and collective-farm-and-cooperative---growing closer together, by the scientific and technological revolution and the introduction of more machinery and equipment in all branches of the economy. All of tnese factors combine to work profound changes in the character and content of labour, increase the number of people whose work is predominantly intellectual, and produce a blend of physical and intellectual labour in the production sphere. In the early 1980s, over half of the 12 million members of the All-Union Society of Inventors and Innovators were workers who introduced efficiency-raising innovations into production.

A major aspect of the movement of Soviet society towards social homogeneity is the drawing together of all nations and nationalities of the USSR with 222 respect to their social structure, which at present follows much the same pattern in all Union and Autonomous republics and Autonomous regions and areas.

At present, the alliance of the working class, collective-farm peasantry and people's intelligentsia is consolidating, and the process of elimination of class distinctions is very much in effect. The prime mover of this process remains the working class and its vanguard--- the Communist Party. The morality and ideology of the working class, its collectivist psychology, interests and ideals are to an increasing degree shared by all strata of Soviet society. Assessing the development of Soviet society over the past decades, the Communist Party has advanced the thesis that the establishment of a classless structure of society will be basically completed within the historical limits of mature socialism.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Social Consumption Funds.

Art. 23 of the USSR Constitution reads, in part: "In order to satisfy the needs of Soviet people more fully social consumption funds are created. The state, with the broad participation of mass organisations and work collectives, ensures the growth and just distribution of these funds.'' The S.C.F. account for that part of the national income which is earmarked for satisfying the needs of the members of the socialist society. They are a major source of increasing the population's real incomes, and of raising the material and cultural levels of the Soviet people.

S.C.F., which in the USSR provide for free education, medical assistance, material maintenance (q. v.) in old age and other social programmes, reached 116.5 billion roubles in 1980, totalling 527 billion roubles in 1976--1980. In 1983 disbursements and benefits paid out of these funds constituted 134.5 billion roubles. At the end of the 11th Five-Year Plan, S.C.F. reached 144 billion roubles, or approximately 2,000 roubles for an average family of four.

S.C.F. pay for annual leaves, temporary disability benefits (the highest in the world at up to 100 per cent of the individual's earnings), free or subsidised 223 accommodation at sanatoria and vacation hotels and a large number of other benefits and allowances. The state also operates a comprehensive system of measures designed to improve the working and living conditions of women and other population groups.

S.C.F. account for 80 per cent of the state's expenses for the upkeep of children at pre-school institutions and almost the total costs involved in operating boarding schools. Annual allocations for the upkeep of a child at a creche exceed 580 roubles, and run at about 500 roubles at a kindergarten; educating one person at a general secondary school costs 200 roubles, 700 roubles at a specialised secondary educational establishment, and over 1,000 roubles at an institution of higher learning, with 80 per cent of the costs paid by the state. The state appropriates over ten roubles per day during a patient's stay in hospital.

In 1984 the state allocated 8.8 billion roubles out of the S.C.F. to subsidise housing (in pursuance of its policy of low rents). The state annually spends four roubles in subsidies per square metre of living space. All in all, additional income from the S.C.F'. in the form of cash disbursements and free services and allowances represents an average of over 40 per cent of an individual's earned income.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Social Insurance.

Art. 43 of the USSR Constitution reads, in part: "Citizens of the USSR shall have the right to maintenance in old age, in sickness, and in the event of complete or partial disability or loss of the breadwinner.

``This right is guaranteed by social insurance of workers and other employees and collective farmers....'' In the USSR, social insurance is paid for by the state. Deductions for this purpose are made from the funds of enterprises, organisations or institutions (the employees themselves do not pay insurance contributions).

The system of S.I. is managed by the trade unions, although the functions of S.I. fully retain a state character, and the money for this purpose comes from the national budget. Since 1970, the trade unions 224 have been in charge of S.I. for collective farmers as well.

S.I. funds provide: 1) temporary disability benefits, and maternity grants and allowances for the birth of a child; 2) old-age, disability and loss-of-- breadwinner pensions, as well as increased pensions depending on the length of the service for individual categories of employees (public education, health protection, etc.) The procedure for payment of benefits and pensions is established by legislative acts of the USSR and the Union republics. In all cases, the size of benefits and pensions depends on the labour contribution, size of the income, conditions and special features of labour, and family status of the individual.

In 1976--1980, the Soviet state raised pensions for a number of categories of employees, e.g., in coal and shale mining, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy (with the maximum size of pensions reaching 140--160 roubles); farmers' retirement pensions, disability pensions and pensions for loss of the breadwinner were also increased. Pensions have been introduced for retired collective farmers with sufficient length of service, and privileges for working old-age pensioners expanded. Maintenance of pensioners disabled from childhood has been considerably improved. A number of issues have been settled concerning pensions and communal services provided for the October Revolution, Civil War and Great Patriotic War veterans, as well as for several other categories of pensioners. This has required fresh allocations from the state fund.

An important goal of S.I. is to prevent or reduce the incidence of occupational diseases. These include integrated programmes for protecting labour, improving working conditions and a complex of sanitary and health-building measures. Among the industrially developed countries, the USSR has the lowest level of occupational diseases (see Social Security).

An increasing number of Soviet people have an opportunity to receive spa treatment paid for from the social insurance fund. The health and holiday homes provide extended treatment and an __PRINTERS_P_225_COMMENT__ 15--1192 225 opportunity to rest to dozens of million people, with one-third of them receiving their vouchers either free or at 30 per cent of the actual cost, the rest being paid out of the national budget and the S.I. fund. The S.I. fund also pays for the maintenance of children in Young Pioneer summer camps and other services.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Social Security.

As Art. 24 of the USSR Constitution reads, the country has a system of social security.

The system of S.S. consists of a range of social and economic measures providing maintenance and services for the aged, disabled, mothers and children. In this sphere state and public activities are channelled into the following main directions: old-age and disability pensions and pensions for loss of the breadwinner paid by the state and the collective farms; temporary disability allowances; job-placement for partially disabled persons; support for aged citizens and invalids, providing them with communal and cultural services; maintenance of people in the homes for the disabled and aged, including free dental, prosthetic and some other medical services. Most or the money for S.S. comes from the national budget, which also includes the social insurance budget. The programme of S.S. measures is carried out by the system of S.S. bodies (Republican Ministries for Social Security and S.S. departments of local Soviets of People's Deputies).

In conformity with the USSR Constitution, the principles underlying the state S.S. system are as follows: universality (i.e., equal right for all working people to receive S.S. benefits); the system's comprehensive and diversified character (pensions, allowances, maintenance in homes for disabled and aged, dental and prosthetic services, retraining and job-placement of the disabled, etc.); provision of social security benefits out of state and social funds without any deductions from wages and salaries.

Steadily pursuing the policy of raising the people's wellbeing, the Soviet state takes steps to improve the system of pensions for the retired and extend the range of benefits and privileges granted to old-age 226 pensioners, veterans of the Great Patriotic War and, especially, disabled war veterans. For certain categories of employees in agriculture (women-- agricultural machine operators) and industry, retirement age has been lowered and pensions raised (e.g., for workers employed at coal and shale mines). Some other grants have also been augmented, including maternity benefits. Within the system of S.C., major efforts are made for improving working conditions and the organisation of work. Implementation has begun of a set of measures aimed at eliminating strenuous manual labour and such health-hazardous factors as air pollution, noise and vibration, etc. The Guidelines for the Economic and Social Development of the USSR for 1986--1990 and for the Period Ending in 2000 provide for a considerable reduction of strenuous, monotonous jobs, a more than twofold decrease in the proportion of manual labour, etc. (see also Material Maintenance, Social Insurance, Mothers and Children).

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Socialist Community

---see World System of Socialism.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Socialist Competition.

In accordance with the USSR Constitution (Art. 15), the S.C. and the creative initiative of the working people are a means of ensuring growth of the productivity of labour, raising the efficiency of production and the quality of work, and ensuring the dynamic, planned and proportionate development of the economy.

S.C. is an effective method of socialist and communist construction, a school for the political, labour and moral education of the working people, a major means of involving them in economic management, raising their cultural level and improving their skills, and stepping up their work and socio-political activity. S.C. contributes to the inculcation of collectivism, the strengthening of attitudes of cooperation and mutual assistance and raising the level of communist consciousness. S.C. as a feature of socialist society has no parallel in other systems, for it is only labour free from exploitation that can provide a genuine impetus for the people to work better and 227 more productively. In doing so, they are guided not only by their personal interest, but also by the interests of society, and each has the opportunity to display initiative and creativity.

During the first few years of Soviet government, Lenin considered S.C. to be very important and outlined methods and principles for organising it, such as greater openness and publicity, comparing results and sharing experience. Forms of S.C. nave changed and grown more effective with the development of socialist society.

S.C., which has its origins in the first few years of Soviet government (when communist subbotniks, or days of voluntary work, were first held), passed through a number of stages in its evolution. The nationwide Stakhonovite movement (named after Alexei Stakhanov, a miner from the Donets Coal Basin who set several production records in the 1930s), was launched in the late 1920s and the mid-1930s. During the years of the Great Patriotic War (1941--1945), S.C. was organised under the slogan "Everything for the Front, Everything for Victory''. The late 1950s produced a new form of S.C.---the "Communist Attitude to Work" drive; this movement grows with millions of people taking part in it.

Today, S.C. is closely linked to the introduction of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution, and to increased effectiveness of production. S. C. inspires the work collectives to reach the highest labour productivity, to save material resources, and use them to increase the production of goods, to produce more high-quality goods, and to fulfill all their commitments in the sphere of production. Today's slogan of S.C. is "Work More Efficiently and with Better Quality''. This means a more thrifty attitude to public property, rational use of all available resources and production capacity, and high performance at low costs.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Socialist Democracy.

"The principal direction in the development of the political system of Soviet society is the extension of socialist democracy, namely ever 228 broader participation of citizens in managing the affairs of society and the state, continuous improvement of the machinery of state, the heightening of the activity of social organisations, the strengthening of the system of people's control, the consolidation of the legal foundations of the functioning of the state and of public life, greater openness and publicity, and constant responsiveness to public opinion" (Art. 9 of the Constitution of the USSR).

Democracy is usually taken to mean a form of state organisation which is based on the principles of people's power, equality and freedom. All these principles, to a greater or lesser extent, were proclaimed before socialism. However, in exploitative societies, democratic forms and institutions are inevitably limited and purely formal. They are placed at the service of the class which possesses the means of production and political power---slave-owners in antiquity, feudals in the Middle Ages and the bourgeoisie under capitalism.

For the first time in history, socialism restored the true meaning to the concept of democracy, filling democratic principles with real content. But this was a gradual process which did not immediately follow the revolutionary transfer of power to the working class and its allies. The emergence and evolution of socialist democracy is a historical process stretching over many years.

The basic principles of socialist democracy were formulated by K. Marx and F. Engels and represent part of the scientific theory of communism as elements in the teaching about the socialist state. Lenin not only developed this teaching in a comprehensive manner, he also laid down the foundations of new statehood and directed the construction of socialist democracy. Lenin's policy of the all-round development of socialist democracy, clearly defined in the new edition of the CPSU Programme, has been elaborated in the consecutive Soviet Constitutions.

Soviet democracy, which faced especially fierce opposition from internal and external counter-- revolutionary forces, made its appearance in an open 229 manner; it did not conceal its class character, nor did it hesitate to make legitimate the privileges of the working people vis-a-vis representatives of the exploiting classes which were fighting against the new government. Essentially, Soviet democracy was, is and will always remain a democracy guaranteeing the broadest possible rights and protecting the interests of the working people; it is a democracy prepared to defend the socialist gains of the people.

In the course of the construction of the new society, the content of socialist democracy grows richer, its historical limitations wither away and forms of people's power become more varied. This process runs parallel with the development of socialist statehood.

The evolution of the state of proletarian dictatorship in the USSR into a state of the whole people, which took place at the stage of developed socialism and was duly reflected in the 1977 Constitution of the USSR, marked a major breakthrough in the establishment of socialism's political system. The Constitution provides a legal foundation for the further deepening of socialist democracy. However, Soviet democracy has experienced and may yet experience problems of growth determined by society's material possibilities, the level of the masses' consciousness, their political culture and the fact that Soviet society does not develop in isolation from the hostile capitalist world.

To further democracy, a vigorous and persistent struggle must be waged against red tape, formalism and other phenomena which block the initiative of the masses and stand in the way of their creativity.

Soviet democracy and the very essence of the socialist way of life are incompatible with lack of discipline, anti-social manifestations and breaches of law. With the full backing of the people, the CPSU steers an undeviating course towards greater discipline, organisation and order.

Principles of this new type of democracy have become a reality in many socialist countries. Socialist democracy can thus be seen as a phenomenon in its own right, which is characterised by the following:

230

---A qualitatively new political phenomenon from the point of view of its class content, in theory and in practice socialist democracy is not severed from the heritage of the past. For centuries popular masses struggled for participation in running the affairs of the state, for political freedom and social rights. The fruits of this struggle were reflected in a number of democratic institutions which were literally wrested from the ruling classes and became part of man's political culture. Socialism has inherited the best of the working people's democratic gains, adapted them to new conditions, and significantly modernised and enriched them.

---While making creative use of the heritage of the past, socialism has also created fundamentally new, unprecedented principles and forms of democracy. The very nature of the socialist system offers enormous possibilities in this respect. For example, the predominance of social ownership of the means of production means that exercise of democracy (through management and control) is extended to the important spheres of economy and culture, which used to be the exclusive domain of private individuals and organisations, and is only partially regulated by the state under modern state-monopoly capitalism.

---A fundamental feature of socialist democracy is the fact that it constantly develops and becomes more effective. As socialist society improves, new methods and techniques which allow the working people to participate in running the affairs of society and reinforce other aspects of socialist democracy are constantly being developed. The steady growth of social wealth gives greater weight to the working people's social rights, while the development of culture and the people's ideology and morality create prerequisites for an ever broader use of diverse political freedoms.

---Under communism, socialist democracy will evolve into a system of communist public self-government (q. v.). This will be by no means equivalent to the abolition of democratic principles and institutions; on the contrary, these will be further developed in the 231 communist society. What is meant is that when the state withers away as instrument of political power, the form of democracy associated with it will wither away as well.

In the political system of socialism people's power is assured through a combination of methods of representative and direct democracy. In the USSR the principle of popular representation is embodied in Soviets of People's Deputies (q. v.) which form a single system of bodies of state authority from bottom to top.

In socialist society methods of direct democracy are used on an unprecedented scale. These methods include nationwide discussions (q. v.) of important legislative bills, the functioning of Party, trade union, YCL and other non-government organisations (q. v.), cooperatives, unions of creative workers (q. v.) and hundreds of other mass organisations (uniting people of the same occupation, interests, place of residence or work, etc.) which allow Soviet citizens to broadly participate in the process of decision-making on political, production and everyday-life matters.

The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (q. v.) is the leading and guiding force of Soviet society. The leading role of the CPSU in society is a guarantee of the genuinely democratic character of bodies of state authority, i.e., the correspondence of their policy to the interests and will of the people.

In the Soviet Union, which has entered the stage of developed socialism, socio-political and ideological unity of the whole people has been attained. Developed socialism is matched by developed democracy. Equality of all citizens, men and women, all races and nationalities, the right of every citizen to work, rest and leisure, education, housing, health protection, other social, economic, political and personal rights and freedoms are the realities of the Soviet people's life, guaranteed by the Constitution of the USSR and the socialist system. The fact that the Soviet people share common vital interests does not imply that there is no diversity of the specific interests or the different social, national, age, occupational and other groups of 232 the population. While expressing the common interests of the whole of the Soviet people, the Party at the same time takes into account and coordinates the specific interests of the different population groups and assures their satisfaction in the mainstream of a common policy.

The Party's leading role also guarantees the fulfilment of another fundamental condition of the democratic nature of state power---the correspondence of its policy to the interests of society's progressive development. Building all its activities on the basis of the Marxist-Leninist theory, the CPSU seeks not only the fullest possible satisfaction of the working people's material and cultural needs but also continual progress towards goals indicated by scientific communism.

Today one adult Soviet citizen out of ten is a CPSU member and, through his or her Party organisation, takes part in determining and implementing the Soviet state's policy. About 2.3 million Soviet people have been elected deputies of Soviets at all levels, i.e., plenipotentiary representatives of the people who exercise state authority in their behalf and at their request. About 140 million people are members of trade unions, through which they daily influence the management of industrial enterprises and organisations, collective and state farms, take decisions, jointly with the management, on matters of production planning and growth, meeting the growing material and cultural needs of the people and of organising their rest and leisure. Over 42 million Soviet young men and women, who are YCL members take active part in the affairs of the Soviet state. More than 10 million workers, collective farmers and other employees work in bodies of people's control. Over 31 million activists participate in the work of various local community bodies set up under the auspices of Soviets (street and house committees, volunteer public order squads, comrades' courts, etc.).

Equality of rights is another fundamental principle of democracy. Under all past socio-economic systems the realisation of this principle was at best limited 233 to the formal equality of citizens before the law. But in reality, this purely declarative equality was meaningless due to the existence of actual class inequality.

The very first act of the socialist revolution, the transfer of the main means of production to public ownership, produced a radical change in the system of social relationships. Along with many other consequences, this historic act was an enormous breakthrough in the achievement of equality, something impossible under capitalism. As a result, prerequisites for exploitation of man by man were eliminated once and for all, and the reliable and solid foundation for genuine equality was established.

The political equality of Soviet citizens is clearly revealed by the fact that all citizens, regardless of their race or nationality, sex, religion, education, residence, social origins, property status and past activities can take part in managing the affairs of the state. Enormous progress has also been made in overcoming different types of social inequality and in asserting the equality of nations and the equality of men and women.

Another indispensable feature of democracy is the creation of conditions for personal freedom (q. v.). In addition to broad socio-economic rights, the Constitution of the USSR proclaims the freedoms of speech, the press, assembly, meetings, conscience as well as inviolability of the home, privacy of correspondence and other civil liberties. Unlike bourgeois practice, these inalienable features of democracy are not purely declarative, they are backed up by the real guarantee of public ownership of the means of production, of the rest of the social wealth, as well as by the socialist way of life.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Socialist Economic Integration.

Art. 30 of the USSR Constitution reads, in part: "The USSR, as part of the world system of socialism and of the socialist community ... takes an active part in socialist economic integration and the socialist international division of labour.''

S.E.I, is the most advanced form of the socialist countries' economic, scientific and technological 234 cooperation at the present stage. Certain elements of S.E.I, have evolved in the process of the development of the socialist international division of labour (q. v.). The establishment of integration ties has been facilitated by the successful activities of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), a multilateral economic organisation of the socialist countries. Considerable progress in this direction was made in the 1950s when CMEA member-states began coordinating their fiveyear economic plans. The adoption in 1971 of the Comprehensive Programme of S.E.I, prepared jointly by CMEA member-states marked a qualitatively new stage in economic cooperation. Covering a period of 15 to 20 years, the Programme calls for a deepening of international socialist division of labour with a view to increasing the efficiency of social production and attaining high rates of growth in the economy and living standards of the socialist community. The main directions of S.E.I, are coordination of planning activities of member-states, production specialisation and cooperation, the establishment of international economic organisations (for example, Intermetal, Agromash, Interkhim), cooperation in tackling fuel and energy problems (joint development of energy and raw-material resources, the creation of a unified energy system of European CMEA member-states, etc.), cooperation in science and technology, coordination of monetary and foreign trade policies, etc.

The adoption of long-term target programmes was a major step in the implementation of the Comprehensive Programme. The programmes outline a longterm strategy of cooperation in key economic areas up to the year 2000 and are called upon to help solve the most acute and vital problems faced by the CMEA members' national economies.

S.E.I, is carried out on the basis of principles of socialist internationalism (q. v.), respect for sovereignty, independence and national interests of participating countries, non-interference in internal affairs, voluntariness and equality. Mutual benefit is also an important principle of S.E.I.

Cooperation among the fraternal countries on the 235 basis of S.E.I, has enabled them to deepen their economic interaction and to make their economies mutually complementary, which benefits them all. CMEA member-states as a whole doubled their industrial potential during the 1970s. The fruits of production specialisation are to be seen in practically all branches of the economy, science and technology. Approximately 120 multilateral and over 1,000 bilateral agreements have been signed, and CMEA members' economic plans for 1981--1985 have been coordinated. An important factor of cooperation has been widespread scientific and technological interaction. A dramatic example of the fraternal countries' joint efforts to promote science and technology was provided by the implementation of the Intercosmos programme which ushered in an era of space flights of international crews.

Together with other members of the socialist community, the USSR is concerned with intensifying and streamlining S.E.I, processes, regarding them not only as a source of sizeable mutual economic benefits but also as a task of enormous political significance, whose fulfilment will largely be determined by the successes of world socialism. The CPSU and other fraternal parties steer a course towards the promotion of intensive production and scientific and technological cooperation among the socialist countries. They are seeking to supplement coordination of plans by coordination of economic policies as a whole and to bring closer the structures of their economic mechanisms, to give fuller play to direct links between ministries, amalgamations and enterprises taking part in cooperation, to set up joint ventures, etc. Today, the USSR imports many kinds of machinery and equipment, means of transportation, consumer goods and certain raw materials from fraternal countries. In turn it supplies other socialist countries with oil, gas, ores, cotton, timber and a variety of manufactured goods. Problems that arise in the course of cooperation are solved jointly by the partners in the interests of each fraternal country ana the community as a whole.

The time has now come to move towards a 236 qualitalively new level of economic integration, for further progress of the socialist community is unthinkable without it. The joint efforts of the socialist countries are aimed at making integration deeper, more comprehensive and effective, a reliable guarantee for the growth of the national economies of member-states and the community as a whole.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Socialist International Division of Labour.

"The USSR, as part of the world system of socialism and of the socialist community ... takes an active part in socialist economic integration and the socialist international division of labour" (Art. 30 of the Constitution of the USSR).

The S.I.D.L. is a process of economic specialisation and cooperation among the socialist countries, which develops on a planned basis. As opposed to capitalist international division of labour, which is spontaneous in nature and based on competition, the S.I.D.L. is based on objective socialist production relations, equality of rights and mutual assistance, i.e., the norms characteristic of socialist internationalism (q. v.).

The principles of the S.I.D.L. evolved within the framework of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) and were approved by the Conference of Representatives of Communist and Workers' Parties of the CMEA Member Countries in 1962. They are aimed at gradually overcoming the historically established differences in the levels of economic development of these countries by means of combining international specialisation with the integrated development of the economies of individual countries.

The main indicators of the development of the S.I.D.L. are the growth of the mutual turnover of goods among the socialist countries, the expansion of areas of international specialisation and cooperation in production, science and engineering, and the exchange of services. In the 1970s alone the volume of bilateral trade among the CMEA member countries has more than tripled; the cooperation in other fields was also a success.

The S.I.D.L. is an important instrument for 237 boosting the efficiency of the socialist countries'economies and improving the material well-being of their population; it is also the foundation of socialist economic integration (q. v.).

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Socialist Internationalism.

Art. 30 of the USSR Constitution states that the USSR, as a part of the world system of socialism and of the socialist community, promotes and strengthens friendship, cooperation and comradely mutual assistance with other socialist countries on the basis of the principle of S.I.

S.I. is the political and ideological foundation of relations between nations and nationalities which have opted socialism, as well as between sovereign socialist states.

Within the Soviet Union itself, S.I. manifests itself in the fraternal cooperation and mutual assistance of all nations and nationalities of the USSR, in their drawing closer together and the emergence of the Soviet people (q. v.) as a new historical community.

In relations between members of the socialist community, S. I. manifests itself in fraternal mutual assistance, coordinated foreign policies and diverse forms of cooperation in the development of economy, science, culture and other fields (see World System of Socialism).

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Socialist Legality.

"The Soviet state and all its bodies function on the basis of socialist law, ensure the maintenance of law and order, and safeguard the interests of society and the rights and freedoms of citizens.

State organisations, social organisations and officials shall observe the Constitution of the USSR and Soviet laws.'' (Art. 4 of the USSR Constitution).

S.L. is one of the underlying principles of the Soviet political system. The juridical foundation of S.L., which consists in the strict observance of laws (q. v.) and the rights and freedoms of citizens which these laws guarantee, is Soviet legislation. Other conditions being equal, the more stable this foundation, the greater the role of S.L. in the life of Soviet society. The ongoing effort to improve legislation in the 238 country is a prerequisite for reinforcing S.L.

It is not only citizens of the USSR who are obliged to respect the Constitution of the USSR and observe Soviet laws, but also foreign nationals (q. v.) and stateless persons in Soviet territory (Art. 59, 37).

S.L. is an element of socialist democracy and means that all citizens are equal before the law, with the law equally applying to all citizens and one law existing for all.

The Soviet Constitution not only demands strict observance of laws by all, but also consistently guarantees observance of laws through a variety of material, organisational, political, and legal means. This applies to the exercise by citizens of the rights and freedoms affirmed by the Constitution and laws (Art. 34--58) and to most of the citizens' duties which have a direct or indirect bearing on ensuring the observance of laws. Concern about strict observance of laws by bodies of state authority and officials permeates the entire organisation and functioning of the Soviet machinery of state.

The USSR's Fundamental Law affirms the supreme legal force of the Constitution of the USSR (Art. 173), and mandatory conformity of all laws and other acts of state bodies to the Constitution of the USSR. On the basis of the federal nature of the USSR, the Constitution determines that Constitutions of Union and Autonomous republics shall conform to the USSR Constitution (Art. 76, 82), specifies bodies which are called upon to control the observance of the Constitution and ensure the conformity of the Constitutions and laws of Union republics to the Constitution and laws of the USSR (Art. 73, 121) and establishes the general rule that the national law shall prevail over laws of Union republics (Art. 74). In determining the competence of the highest and local bodies of state authority and administration, the Constitution obliges them to ensure observance of laws, take measures to protect socialist property, maintain public order, ensure state security and protect citizens' rights and freedoms (Art. 131, 146). To avoid arbitrariness in the issuing of juridical acts by state bodies, 239 the Constitution determines what acts they are to issue, which acts of superior bodies these are to conform to, which bodies can suspend or rescind them should they fail to conform to law or for other reasons (Art. 121, 134, 135, 140, 141).

Bodies promulgating legal acts have the right to ensure their execution and verify their implementation (Art. 93, 126, 133, 140). In certain cases, other bodies of state authority and administration are empowered to verify implementation of legislative acts, for example, fulfilment of state plans and assignments, or those concerning combating breaches of state discipline, mismanagement, extravagance and waste, red-tape and bureaucracy, etc. (Art. 92, 147).

A special section of the USSR Constitution, " Justice, Arbitration and Procurator's Supervision'', defines a system of judicial bodies which are called upon to safeguard socialist legality, and affirms the democratic principles and goals of their organisation and functioning (see Justice, State Arbitration, Procurator's Office of the USSR).

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Socialist Property.

In accordance with the Constitution of the USSR (Art. 10) the foundation of the economic system of the USSR (q. v.) is socialist ownership of the means of production.

S.P. arose as a result of the victory of the socialist revolution by means of the socialisation of large-scale private capitalist property and the transformation of small-scale private property along socialist lines.

The assertion of socialist ownership of the means of production in the USSR played a decisive role in the victory of the new social system and became the main economic prerequisite for the creation and consolidation of a multinational state of a new type, and for the building of developed socialism (q. v.). S.P. underlies the community of the basic economic interests of the whole Soviet people.

S.P. in the USSR exists in the forms of state property (belonging to the whole people) (q. v.) and collective-farm-and-cooperative property (q. v.). S.P. also includes the property of trade unions and other 240 non-government organisations (q. v.) which they require to carry out their purposes under their rules.

The extent of socialisation of the economy has become much broader under developed socialism. The state promotes the growth of collective farm-and-- cooperative property and its gradual merging with the state socialist property. In recent years this process has been facilitated by a policy of greater specialisation and concentration of agricultural production on the basis of cooperation between individual farms and agro-industrial integration. The state protects S.P. and provides conditions of its growth. No one has the right to use S.P. for personal gain or other selfish ends. Every citizen of the USSR has a duty to preserve and protect S.P., to combat misappropriation and squandering of state and socially-owned property and to make thrifty use of the people's wealth.

The experience of existing socialism shows that it takes a long time for the people who achieved the socialist revolution to accept their new status as supreme and unchallenged owners of the entire social wealth, to grow accustomed to it economically, politically and psychologically by means of evolving a collectivist consciousness and conduct.

Replacing individualism with its cult of private property, by collectivism, with its emphasis on the common good, is a protracted and complex process.

The experience of socialist construction has shown (in full conformity with K.Marx's prediction) that everywhere where proletarian revolutions have gained the upper hand, public ownership of the means of production, which is manifested in a variety of forms, has become the main factor of socialism's existence, the foundation of its economic system and the principal source of its progress.

On the basis of socialist ownership the USSR has built up a powerful planned economy which makes it possible to solve large-scale complex economic and social tasks. It should be added that many of the shortcomings and problems which disrupt normal operation of individual sectors of the national economy are due to a violation of norms and disregard of __PRINTERS_P_241_COMMENT__ 16--1192 241 the exigencies of the economy based on socialist ownership of the means of production.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Socialist State of the Whole People.

"The aims of the dictatorship of the proletariat having been fulfilled, the Soviet state has become a state of the whole people.'' (Preamble to the USSR Constitution).

The S.S.W.P. is the stage in the development of a socialist type of state which was ushered in by the victory of the proletarian revolution. It is a direct successor of the state of the dictatorship of the proletariat, and a higher step in the development of the socialist state as represented by the state of developed socialism. At the stage of mature socialism, the activities of the Soviet state become more numerous and richer in content; its democratic nature is given fuller play and the methods of the state's influence on the evolution of social processes become more effective.

The social base of the S.S.W.P. is represented by the whole of society. Art. 1 of the USSR Constitution states that the S.S.W.P. expresses the will and interests of the workers, peasants, and intelligentsia, the working people of all the nations and nationalities of the country. At the same time, the character of the Soviet state as a state of the whole people is being extended and consolidated on the basis of the continuity of its proletarian class nature. The working class remains the leading force in the S.S.W.P., while Soviet society's leading and guiding force, the Communist Party, having become a party of the whole people, has not lost its class character and remains inherently a party of the working class. Under present-day conditions, the activities of the S.S.W.P. are concentrated on the achievement of the tasks of improving socialism.

The S.S.W.P., which has a multinational character, is organised along the lines of socialist federalism. It is an integral federal multinational state made up of 15 equal Soviet Socialist Republics as a result of the free self-determination of nations and voluntary association.

The S.S.W.P. is profoundly democratic and humane; it relies primarily on persuasion, organisation and 242 incentives. At the same time, the S.S.W.P. has means of coercion at its disposal, as well as corresponding agencies.

The new USSR Constitution is a reflection of further development of the democratic foundations of the S.S.W.P.'s organisation and functioning as evidenced by the broader participation of the working people in government. This, in turn, is reflected in the more vigorous activity of the Soviets of People's Deputies (q. v.), through which the people exercise state power, the increased role of social organisations and work collectives which take part in managing the affairs of the state and society and in deciding political, economic, social and cultural matters, as well as in the submission of major matters of state importance to nationwide discussion or a popular vote (referendum) (q. q. v.).

The Constitution of the USSR reflects the two interrelated trends in the development of the S.S.W.P.: further division of labour between the various links in the machinery of the state and the strengthening of the unity and purposefulness of the entire state structure. Presently the state structure includes bodies of state authority, organs of administration, the courts, the Procurator's Office as well as bodies of people's control and state arbitration. At the same time, the 1977 USSR Constitution emphasises the importance of ensuring growing prestige and broader powers for Soviets of People's Deputies. The principle of the Soviets' supremacy has been reinforced by a special provision which states that all other bodies are controlled by and accountable to the Soviets.

The ultimate goal of the Soviet state is the building of a classless communist society which will make communist public self-government (q. v.) possible. Under the USSR Constitution, the main tasks of the S.S.W.P. 'are to form the material and technical base of communism, to perfect socialist social relations and transform them into communist relations, to mould the citizen of communist society, to raise the people's living and cultural standards, to safeguard the country's security, and to further the 243 consolidation of peace and development of international cooperation.

At the current stage, the S.S.W.P. has an especially great role to play in directing the national economy. Economic growth is essential for the solution of social problems, strengthening the country's defense potential and backing up a vigorous foreign policy. It is in the economic sphere that prerequisites for the successful progress of Soviet society towards communism are being created.

Thus, the Party and the S.S.W.P. are striving to improve planning and economic management. In order to promote the country's accelerated socio-economic development, measures are being mapped out to perfect the economic management system and to guarantee the reliable and efficient functioning of the economic mechanism. The management of the economy by the state machinery could hardly be improved without more vigorous activities of bodies of people's control (q. v.), which monitor the functioning of administrative bodies and officials.

Developed socialism has considerably furthered the activities of the Soviet state designed to promote social, political and cultural development of Soviet society. The social policy of the Party and the state now plays a greater role in drawing closer together all classes and social groups in the country, gradually eliminating surviving social differences, restructuring all social relationships on a collectivist basis and moulding the new man.

The Soviet state performs extremely important functions in international relations. It consistently pursues a Leninist policy of peace, whose principles are written into the new USSR Constitution (see Foreign Policy, World System of Socialism).

The structure and functioning of the S.S.W.P. are organised along the lines of democratic centralism (q. v.). Further development of the S.S.W.P. takes place on the basis of the further consolidation of socialist legality (q. v.), and law and order (q. v.). The USSR Constitution stresses that the Soviet state and all its bodies function on the basis of socialist law, 244 ensure the maintenance of law and order, and safeguard the interests of society and the rights and freedoms of citizens. The observance of the USSR Constitution and Soviet laws by state institutions, social organisations and officials is an indispensable condition for the consistent implementation of the Soviet people's will, invariability of socialism's foundations, and the extension and deepening of socialist democracy (q. v.). Judicial bodies, the courts (q. v.), the Procurator's Office of the USSR (q. v.) and the Soviet militia have a responsible role to play in strengthening socialist legality, law and order.

The CPSU and the Soviet state are concerned with the further improvement of Soviet law. During the last few years many juridical norms were modified to conform to the Soviet society's present level. In accordance with the USSR Constitution, the country's legislators are preparing laws which will permit more precise regulation of various aspects of social relations. A planned effort to bring the laws of the USSR in conformity with the Constitution of the USSR is underway. Presently the effort to streamline legislation follows three priority directions: management of the national economy, exercise of constitutional rights by citizens and their organisations, and the completion of the publication of an all-Union statute book of laws.

In its activity to perfect the S.S.W.P., the CPSU is invariably guided by the Marxist-Leninist teaching on the state under socialism, and creatively develops it on the basis of an in-depth analysis of new social conditions.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Sovereignty of the USSR.

The sovereignty of the USSR shall extend throughout its territory (Art. 75 of the USSR Constitution).

The S. of the USSR means the supremacy of Soviet state authority within the country and its independence in international relations. It is exercised in all spheres of activity of the Soviet state.

The S. of the USSR is reflected in the sovereign rights of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics laid 245 down by its Constitution. These include: adoption of the Constitution of the USSR and control over its observance; supremacy over the territory of the USSR; Soviet citizenship; the formation of a single system of the higher bodies of state authority and administration, and of courts and procurator's offices-, the establishment of armed forces; pursuance of foreign policy.

S., which is an inalienable feature of state authority, cannot be transferred, divided or limited.

In the Soviet Union, sovereignty is possessed both by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as a whole and the Union republics which comprise it. The sovereignty of the Union as a whole and the sovereignty of the Union republics do not negate each other but, rather, are harmoniously combined within constitutionally established limits. As represented by its higher bodies of state authority and administration, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics deals with state, economic, social and cultural matters concerning the Union and all Union republics, i.e., issues which by agreement of all the Union republics have been placed under the jurisdiction of the USSR.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Soviet People.

The Preamble to the Constitution of the USSR states that in the USSR "on the basis of the drawing together of all classes and social strata and of the juridical and actual equality of all its nations and nationalities and their fraternal cooperation, a new historical community of people has been formed---the Soviet people."This community embodies the unbreakable alliance of the working class, the collective-farm peasantry, and people's intelligentsia, in which the working class has the leading role. The S.P., representing over 100 nations and nationalities in the USSR, share a common economic, social, political and cultural life.

The S.P. are a multinational collective of working people living in both urban and rural areas who rally around the common socialist system, and adhere to the lofty ideals of the building of communism, Marxist-Leninist ideology, communist ideals of the working class and the principles of socialist internationalism.

246

The CPSU has played a leading role in the emergence of the S.P. The Communist Party expresses the interests of the whole S.P., consistently and purposefully promoting and extending friendship between the peoples in the USSR and working for the greater unity of the Soviet people in all spheres of life.

The emergence of a new social and international community of people---the S.P.---is an important feature of developed socialism in the USSR and is indicative of increasing social homogeneity and the triumph of the CPSU's Leninist nationalities policy.

The extension and consolidation of the multinational Soviet state's social base is inextricably linked with the emergence of the S.P. Mature socialism has further consolidated the country's community on the basis of its highly developed economy, a single complex which includes the economies of all the constituent republics and develops in accordance with the single state plan in the interests of every republic and the country as a whole.

The economic, social and political community of the socialist nations and nationalities has also increased their cultural community as flourishing national cultures enrich each other.

A salient feature of the S.P. as an international community of people is the harmonious combination of the international features and interests, which all Soviet people share, with national interests. The emergence of the S.P. has been accompanied by the appearance of the Soviet people's national pride, a deep and pervasive patriotic feeling.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Soviets of People's Deputies.

In accordance with the Constitution of the USSR (Art. 89) S.P.D. constitute a single system of bodies of state authority.

S.P.D. are representative bodies of state through which the people exercise their power. The Soviets represent the political foundation of the USSR (q. v.). Forming a vast network of massive organisations of state authority, their influence permeates the whole of the country's public life from top to bottom. All 247 other state bodies are controlled by and accountable to the Soviets.

The system of Soviets embodies the democratic character of the Soviet state and its federal nature. Presently it includes the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (q. v.), 15 Supreme Soviets of Union Republics, 20 Supreme Soviets of Autonomous Republics and over 50,000 local Soviets.

The Soviets' popular, democratic nature is graphically reflected in their composition. Over 2.3 million deputies have been elected to Soviets at all levels. Among them are representativies of all social groups in the country and over 100 nationalities; 68.6 per cent of all deputies are workers or collective farmers; 43.2 per cent are members or candidate members of the CPSU. Almost half of all deputies are women, and one deputy out of three is under 30.

The Soviets, which are bodies of genuine people's power to which the people elect their best representatives, can be likened to a collective portrait of the society of working people. Their existence would be unthinkable in a bourgeois society, which functions solely in the interests of the ruling class of capitalists. It is a fact that representatives of the working people (workers, farmers, etc.) in the parliaments of developed capitalist states are in the minority.

Local S.P.D. represent the broadest cross-section of the population. They maintain close links with broad masses of working people, whom they involve in managing the affairs of the state. Local Soviets guide the activities of approximately 2,250 local community groups, such as the commissions established under the auspices of Soviets' executive committees, which supervise the work of public catering and retail trade facilities; minors commissions; street, village and other commissions; volunteer public order squads, comrades' courts, etc., with a total membership of over 31.5 million people.

Although they differ in the scale of their activities, importance and role in the exercise of state authority, and their scope of competence, all the Soviets, from Supreme all the way down to local Soviets, are 248 elements of a single federal state organisation. All are organised and function according to the following principles: electiveness from bottom to top (see Electoral System), accountability to the people, the binding nature of the higher Soviets' decisions for lower ones, combination of centralised leadership with the initiative and creativity of the masses and collegiality of leadership.

The S.P.D. not only concentrate the fullness of political power, they also direct economic, social and cultural development. In accordance with the Constitution of the USSR (Art. 93), Soviets of People's Deputies direct all sectors of state, economic, and social and cultural development, either directly or through bodies instituted by them, take decisions and ensure their execution and verify their implementation. This constitutional provision embodies Lenin's idea of the necessity to combine decision-making with the execution of decisions in the functioning of socialist-type representative bodies.

The 1977 Constitution of the USSR has considerably extended the powers of Soviets at all levels ana expanded their social role. This concerns both the supreme representative bodies of state authority and the local Soviets.

The Supreme Soviet of the USSR (q. v.)---the highest body of state authority is increasing its influence on different spheres of social life, including economic, social and cultural development, the reinforcement of the legal foundations or the state and society and the functioning of bodies accountable to it.

Concerning themselves as before with problems of local economic development and services for the population, local S.P.D. are increasingly involved in assuring the comprehensive economic and social development of their respective territories and in raising the efficiency of production and quality of work, i. e., they combine national and local interests. This trend is primarily reflected in the more active coordination and control of the work of enterprises and organisations of republican and union subordination situated in their territories. The law on the Main Powers 249 of Territorial and Regional Soviets of People's Deputies, and Soviets of People's Deputies of Autonomous Regions and Autonomous Areas, adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in June 1980, was largely instrumental in extending the Soviets' rights and material possibilities for the fulfilment of these tasks.

Soviets have played an important role in implementing the decisions of the Communist Party. The USSR Supreme Soviet is faced with especially challenging tasks: to intensify its organisational effort to assure the strict and undeviating observance of laws and fulfilment of plans, and to extend links with foreign parliaments in the name of peace and cooperation between the peoples.

The Supreme Soviets of the USSR, Union and Autonomous republics are called upon to ensure ever closer links between their legislative work, on the one hand, and their supervision and control functions, on the other. Local S.P.D. are stepping up their activities designed to promote economic development in their territories and improve the conditions of life and work of the Soviet people. The Decree of the CPSU Central Committee and the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Council of Ministers of the USSR on the Further Increase of the Role of Soviets of People's Deputies in Economic Development, adopted in April 1981, offers considerable opportunities for this.

S.P.D. are active in the promotion and deepening of democratic forms of relations with the public, and improving the methods and approaches which they use in their day-to-day functioning.

In session, Soviets discuss the most important problems of Soviet society's development, conduct regular hearings of reports of executive committees and their subdivisions, hear reports of standing committees, discuss matters brought up in letters from citizens concerning the implementation of deputies' suggestions and proposals, as well as hear reports of people's deputies (q. v.) on the fulfilment of their duties.

The work of Soviets is becoming more open and 250 gaining greater publicity (q. v.). Through the mass media and special announcements, the population gets timely information about the coming sessions of Soviets, reports of deputies, executive committees and so on. Control over the functioning of executive and administrative bodies as well as that of officials, is becoming increasingly effective. Among the most important are deputies' inquiries (see People's Deputy), and work in pursuance of electors' mandates (q.v.).

The Soviets are a form of political organisation which offers an unparalleled opportunity to marshall the creative initiatives of the public at large and channel them for the common good, to take into account a broad range of opinions and suggestions in decision-making and to adopt decisions which meet the interests of all classes, social and age groups, nations and nationalities of Soviet society as fully as possible.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ State Arbitration

in the USSR. "Economic disputes between enterprises, institutions, and organisations are settled by state arbitration bodies within the limits of their jurisdiction.

``The organisation and manner of functioning of state arbitration bodies are defined in the Law on State Arbitration in the USSR" (Art. 163 of the USSR Constitution).

The S.A. in the USSR is the chief body empowered to settle economic disputes between state, cooperative (with the exception of collective farms) and other social organisations. The network of S.A. bodies is headed by the State Arbitration Agency under the Council of Ministers of the USSR and is accountable to it. The system of S.A. of the USSR embraces state arbitration bodies under the Councils of Ministers of Union and Autonomous republics, and under the executive committees of territorial, region and city (town) Soviets of Workers' Deputies. The S.A. Agency of the USSR is headed by the Chief State Arbitrator.

Apart from dealing with economic disputes, the purpose of S.A. is to prevent breaches of law and 251 state discipline, and shortcomings in economic activity, and to expose and eliminate the causes of such breaches and shortcomings.

Other objectives pursued by S.A. are to use legal measures to help protect socialist property, develop the system of cost accounting, improve economic feasibility, increase the role of collective agreement, advance rational economic contacts and cooperation among organisations, promote scientific and technological progress, raise the efficiency of social production and the quality of work, and secure a better final result of economic activity.

To come to a decision in an economic dispute, a state arbitrator and the representatives of the parties involved carefully consider all facts in the case. The arbitrator helps the parties reach an agreement. If agreement is not reached, or is not lawful, or if representatives of both or either of the parties are absent, the state arbitrator reaches an award individually. The law contains provisions covering cases when a dispute is settled in the absence of representatives of the parties concerned. Control over the lawfulness and fairness of arbitration awards is exercised by Chief State Arbitrators or by higher arbitration bodies. The S.A. is vested with the right to examine the legal procedure used in concluding contracts in ministries, state committees and other departments. S.A. bodies of the USSR and of the Union Republics are obliged to instruct other bodies settling economic disputes, analyse the methods of their work, and give them recommendations.

In cases provided for by the law, higher bodies of S.A. endorse or coordinate normative acts and explain the ways of applying the economic decisions passed by the Council of Ministers of the USSR and of Union republics to ministries, state committees, and departments of state administration.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ State Awards of the USSR.

Under Art. 121 of the USSR Constitution, the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet institutes orders, medals and honorific titles of the USSR; awards orders and medals of the 252 USSR; and confers honorific titles of the USSR.

Decoration with a S.A. of the USSR is one of major moral incentives to encourage citizens to develop a more active, creative approach to work and public life. A responsible attitude to one's job, heroism displayed during the defence of the socialist country, fulfilment of international duty, work to consolidate peace and friendship among nations, active public and political service, concern for the education and upbringing of children and young people are always appreciated by the Party and the Soviet state.

The General Statute on Orders, Medals and Honorific Titles of the USSR adopted on July 3, 1979 establishes, in conformity with the Constitution, the procedure of the institution of orders and medals and the granting of honorific titles of the USSR; the procedure of the recommendation for a decoration and the investiture of an award; the rights and duties of those decorated with an award; the procedure of the dispossession of awards; and the penalties for unlawful actions with respect to state awards of the USSR.

The Statute is the first document to contain a classification of S.A. of the USSR. In 1981, the Soviet Union had 20 Orders and 53 medals.

The highest classes of distinction of the USSR are the titles of Hero of the Soviet Union and Hero of Socialist Labour, the title "Hero City" and "Hero Fortress,'' and the title of Heroine Mother.

The title of Hero of the Soviet Union was instituted in 1934 and is awarded for personal or collective services to the Soviet state and society involving a heroic feat. Heroes of the Soviet Union are decorated with the highest award of the USSR---the Order of Lenin, a special insignia---the Gold Star Medal and a diploma of the USSR Supreme Soviet Presidium. The title of Hero of Socialist Labour (established in 1938) is conferred on persons who have displayed heroism in work, made a significant contribution by their outstanding and innovative activity, a major input to make social production more efficient and help develop the economy, science, culture, might and 253 glory of the USSR. Heroes of Socialist Labour are awarded the Order of Lenin, the Hammer and Sickle Medal, and a diploma of the USSR Supreme Soviet Presidium. Heroes of the Soviet Union and Heroes of Socialist Labour enjoy a number of privileges provided for by the law, including an increased retirement pension, reduction of several taxes, the use of public transport free of charge, etc.

The Statute on Orders and the Regulations on Medals define the services which merit decoration. In accordance with the nature of service, S.A. of the USSR fall into categories. Thus, the first category of orders comprises the highest award of the USSR---the Order of Lenin (established on April 6, 1930); the Order of the October Revolution (October 31, 1967), the Red Banner of Labour (September 7, 1928), the Friendship of Peoples (December 17, 1972), the Badge of Honour (November 25, 1935), and the Order of Work Glory, 1st, 2nd and 3rd Class (January 18,1974). These orders were instituted to decorate people for services rendered in the October Revolution and in work, for services in the defence of the socialist Motherland, in the promotion of friendship and cooperation among peoples, in the consolidation of peace, and for other services to the Soviet state and society.

The second category includes the orders instituted for decorating people for services rendered in the defence of the socialist Motherland and for other military services: the Order of Victory---the highest military order (November 8, 1943), the Order of the Red Banner (August 1, 1924), the Order of Suvorov, 1st, 2nd and 3rd Class (July 29, 1942), the Order of Ushakov, 1st and 2nd Class (March, 3, 1944), the Order of Kutuzov, 1st, 2nd and 3rd Class (July 29, 1942, February 8, 1943), the Order of Nakhimov, 1st and 2nd Class (March 3, 1944), the Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, 1st, 2nd and 3rd Class (October 10, 1943), the Order of Alexander Nevsky (July 29, 1942), the Order of the Patriotic War, 1st and 2nd Class (May 20, 1942), the Order of the Red Star (April 6, 1930), the Order for Service for the Motherland in the Armed Forces of the USSR, 1st, 2nd and 254 3rd Class (October 28, 1974), and the Order of Glory, 1st, 2nd and 3rd Class (November 8, 1943).

Bearers of the Order of Glory of all the three classes have a number of privileges: a 50 per cent increase in disability pensions, a priority right to better housing, a 50 per cent reduction in rent, the immovable property tax, land rent and agricultural tax. Once a year, they are entitled to a free round-trip ticket to any place in the Soviet Union by railway, air, coach or watertransport, to the use of public city transport free of charge, and in rural areas---free passes for buses running between districts. Those requiring a treatment in a health-resort are annually given a free voucher. Persons decorated with the Order for Service for the Motherland in the Armed Forces of the USSR (all three classes) receive a 15 per cent increase in pension, priority right to housing, free vouchers to holiday and health resort, etc.

The Orders Heroine Mother and Maternal Glory 1st, 2nd and 3rd Class, are included into the third category. They are awarded to mothers who have borne and raised 7 or more children.

The medals instituted in the USSR are also placed into a number of categories. The first includes the insignia of special distinction: the Gold Star and Hammer and Sickle medals; medals for services in work: For Labour Valour, For Distinction in Labour, and Labour Veteran's Medal; there are 9 medals for services in the defence of the socialist Motherland and for other military services: For Courage, To Partisans of the Patriotic War, 1st and 2nd Class, etc.; for services in accomplishing major economic tasks of the USSR, there are 6 medals, including the medal For the Development of the Virgin Lands, For Development of the Mineral Wealth and the Petroleum-and-Gas Complex of Western Siberia; for mothers who have borne and raised many children---Maternity Medal, 1st and 2nd Class; for illustrious fulfilment of civic and official duties---3 medals, including the medal For Distinctive Services in Protecting Public Order; for the services rendered during the Great Patriotic War in the defence, capture and liberation of towns and territories---18 255 medals, including the medal For the Defence of Stalingrad and For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War of 1941--1945. In addition, 11 jubilee medals have been instituted for decorating people in connection with important dates in the history of the Soviet people. Among them is the jubilee medal For Valorous Labour (For Military Valour), in commemoration of Lenin's Centennial, jubilee medal commemorating Thirty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War of 1941--1945, and others.

In the USSR, 13 honorific titles have been instituted, including People's Artiste of the USSR, People's Physician of the USSR, People's Teacher of the USSR, Cosmonaut-Pilot of the USSR, Merited Inventor of the USSR, etc.

State awards of the USSR may be given to enterprises, organisations, amalgamations, state institutions, military units, Union and Autonomous republics, regions, towns, cities and other inhabited localities. Persons who are not Soviet citizens, as well as enterprises, institutions, organisations and inhabited localities of foreign countries may also be decorated with state awards of the USSR.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ State Border of the USSR.

Under Art. 73 of the USSR Constitution, safeguarding the USSR S.B. and territory lies within the jurisdiction of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, as represented by its highest bodies of state authority and administration.

On November 24, 1982, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, proceeding from the principle of inviolability of the borders, set forth in Lenin's Decree on the Institution of Frontier Guards (May 1918) and further developed in the USSR Constitution, adopted the Law of the USSR On the State Borders of the USSR. The Law rests on the constitutional articles concerning the peaceful foreign policy of the Soviet state and the defence of socialist Motherland, and conforms to the generally recognised principles and norms of international law.

As defined by the Law, the S.B. of the Soviet Union is the line and the vertical surface along this line which 256 determines the bounds of the territory of the USSR--- the land, waters, earth bowels and air space. The S.B. dividing the USSR from its neighbouring states and the high seas is over 60,000 km long. The USSR has a land border with 12 states: Norway, Finland, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, the People's Republic of China, Mongolia, and the Korean People's Democratic Republic.

Protection of the S.B. of the USSR is a major and inalienable part of the defence of socialist Motherland. The S.B. is inviolable, and any attempts to violate it shall be suppressed. The S.B. of the USSR is determined by decisions of the USSR Supreme Soviet, its Presidium, and international treaties signed by the USSR. Within the terms of its reference, the Council of Ministers of the USSR shall adopt measures to protect the inviolability of the S.B. and territory of the USSR. Proceeding from the Leninist principles on the peaceful foreign policy steadily pursued by the Soviet state, the USSR strives to settle all frontier incidents on the basis of mutual respect and good-neighbourly relations, in accordance with Soviet legislation and the international treaties signed by the USSR.

The procedure of crossing the USSR S.B., the navigation and stay of Soviet and foreign ships and naval vessels in the territorial waters (territorial sea) of the USSR and in the Soviet part of the border rivers, lakes and other bodies of water; of the entry of foreign ships and naval vessels in the inland waters and at the ports of the USSR and of staying in them; the maintenance of the S.B.; making various jogs, fishing, hunting and other activity along the S.B. of the USSRshall be determined by legislative acts of the USSR and its treaties. Border regulations are also specified: the rules governing the entry, stay, residence and movement of Soviet citizens and other persons in the border zone and in the borderland; the registering and maintenance of vessels in piers, berths and ports of registry, their sailing and moving in the territorial waters (territorial sea) of the USSR, in the inland waters of the USSR, in the Soviet part of the border rivers, lakes and other bodies of water. There are also __PRINTERS_P_257_COMMENT__ 17--1192 257 rules regulating the procedure of the sojourn and movement in the points of passage across the S.B. of the USSR.

The S.B. of the USSR on land, sea, rivers, lakes and other bodies of water shall be protected by the border troops, and in air space---by the air-defence troops. The Law specifies the main responsibilities and rights of these troops in protecting the USSR S.B. The S.B. of the USSR adjoining the socialist community countries shall be protected by the border troops in coordination with the border troops of these countries with a view to further developing cooperation in this field.

Soviet citizens actively participate in the protection of the USSR S.B. The Law determines the forms of participation of state bodies, social organisations and Soviet citizens in safeguarding the S.B. of the USSR in accordance with established practice. State bodies and social organisations assist the border troops in the enlistment of Soviet citizens on a voluntary basis in the protection of the S.B. of the USSR. Voluntary public order squads have been formed in the populated localities of border districts and in the points of passage across the S.B. of the USSR.

Persons guilty of violating or attempting to violate the S.B. of the USSR, its general regime, the frontier regime, or the regime in the points of passage across the state border of the USSR, of illegal carriage or attempted illegal carriage across the S.B. of the USSR of goods, materials, documents or other objects, and also of other breaches of the Legislation on the S.B. of the USSR shall bear criminal, administrative or other responsibility in keeping with the legislation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Union republics.

The Law came into force as of March 1, 1983. Simultaneously, the Statute on the Protection of the S.B. of the USSR adopted by the Decree of the USSR of August 5, 1960, was invalidated.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ State Plans for Economic and Social Development.

Under the USSR Constitution (Art. 16), the Soviet 258 economy is managed on the basis of S.P. for E. and S.D.

Drawn up with a view to promoting the interests and meeting the needs of the Soviet people, these plans are the principal means of implementing the social and economic policy of the CPSU and the Soviet state.

The planning of economic and social development is an important part of the work done by the Soviet state and the Communist Party in administering the economic, social and cultural life of society. Planning is based on the analysis and application of objective economic laws, and includes setting targets for branches of the economy, sectors of production and the country's regions, efforts to meet these targets, and control over the results.

In conformity with the resolution adopted by the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers "Better Planning and Greater Influence of the Economic Mechanism on Raising the Efficiency of Production and the Quality of Work" (July 1979), the Soviet state planning system includes the following types of social and economic development plans: an integrated programme of scientific and technological development (covering 20 years); guidelines for economic and social development (10 years), five-year plans; and annual plans.

In the Soviet Union emphasis is laid on plans drawn up for a period of five years, with each year's targets defined. A five-year plan form the basis of the economic activity of ministries, amalgamations, enterprises and organisations. Drawing on scientific and technological advances, its purpose is to improve the structure of production, secure the balanced development of various branches of the economy and of production within each branch, streamline cooperation and specialisation, and ensure the efficient territorial distribution of enterprises. A number of measures mapped out by the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers will further increase the role of five-year plans as the main form of the country's social and economic development planning.

__PRINTERS_P_259_COMMENT__ 17* 259

Five-year plans sum up the experience of socialist construction accumulated in the country, use the experience of other socialist countries, and implement the Party's strategy and policy conformably to prevailing conditions. Each new five-year plan defines the goals of economic and social development for the next five years, develops the ways and means to implement them, and, in general, represents an important step forward in the country's life.

Along with long-term plans, annual plans are also drawn up on the basis of annual targets set by the five-year plan. There is a need for such short-term plans, as five-year plans do not always take into account all resources and the entire potential, or make provisions for the possible additional reserves and needs of the national economy. An annual plan specifies and elaborates the part of the five-year plan it covers, with due regard to the changed potential and requirements of the economy and me population. Thus annual plans play an independent and significant role in the economy. On the whole, annual plans are an effective lever of day-to-day management of the country's economy and contribute greatly to the implementation of five-year plans.

Apart from economic and social development plans of the USSR, plans are elaborated for the economic and social development of each Union and Autonomous republic, economic region, autonomous region and area, and for other administrative and territorial units. They are constituent parts of the state, social and economic development plan; their objective is to ensure the balanced economic and social development on the territory of the corresponding republic, economic region, etc., and they contain the main indices of the plans drawn up for each enterprise, institution and organisation of higher subordination located on their territory.

The ultimate purpose of S.P. for economic and social development is to promote the welfare of Soviet people, and to consolidate the country's economic and defence potential. They reflect the Communist Party's and Soviet people's desire for peace.

260

The Soviet people play an important part in developing S.P. Draft five-year and long-term plans are submitted for public discussion in the press, are debated by work collectives at places of work, Party meetings and conferences, and at Party congresses of Union republics. In the course of the nationwide discussion, they are amended, elaborated and clarified.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ State Privileges for Students.

Among other things, the right of Soviet citizens to education is ensured by the provision of state scholarships and grants and privileges for students (Art. 45).

Under the Fundamentals of Legislation on Public Education of the USSR and the Union republics, all students have the free right to use laboratories, workrooms, auditoriums, reading halls, libraries and other educational and relevant facilities, as well as sports centres, sport facilities and other equipment belonging to the educational establishments. As established by the law, students are provided with scholarships, textbooks, hostel accommodations, boarding schools and medical care in the educational establishment. They have the right to use transport facilities with reduced fares or free of charge and to get other types of material assistance. The average annual expenditure of the state per student is over 1,000 roubles. Four out of five full-time students (with the exception of general secondary school students) receive scholarships.

Those students combining studies with a job have the right to additional leave, a reduced working week, and a number of other privileges.

Beginning with the llth Five-Year Plan period, all general secondary school textbooks are distributed among pupils free of charge.

The state provides half the funds spent on hot meals for schoolchildren attending country boardingschools. Besides, up to 25 per cent of such children may receive their meals free of charge.

The secondary schools have the right to use the funds of the local departments of universal secondary education, out of which material assistance is extended to children from low-income families.

261

Executive committees of district and city Soviets of People's Deputies have the right to provide free meals for children attending full-day classes.

In rural areas, executive committees of local Soviets with the assistance of the appropriate ministries and departments of state administration are obliged to organise the regular and free conveyance of schoolchildren to their schools and back home, using for that purpose express buses, suburban and local railway trains, as well as transport provided by collective and state farms, timber procurement establishments, and other enterprises and organisations.

Students of vocational schools are provided, free of charge, with school uniforms and meals.

Students who are doing well at vocational schools and at the same time holding a job are entitled to a 30-day leave to be extended over the academic year in order to prepare for and take their examinations; during this leave they are paid 50 per cent of their average salary.

Students of secondary specialised and higher educational establishments are also entitled to quite a few privileges. In 1971, the state increased scholarships by 25 per cent for students attending institutions of higher learning, and by 50 per cent for students receiving education in the system of vocational training. Since 1968, full-time students in practical training receive salaries plus their scholarships. Special privileges are granted to students doing vocational and professional training after working hours or by correspondence courses. They receive additional paid students' leaves (from 10 to 40 calendar days during examinations and from 2 to 4 months for writing their graduation thesis). They also have the right to travel to the place where their educational establishment is located at reduced rates. Persons taking entrance exams to a specialised secondary schools or institutions of higher learning may be given additional unpaid leave.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ State (Public) Property.

Art. 11 of the USSR Constitution reads: "State property, i.e. the common property 262 of the Soviet people, is the principal form of socialist property.''

S.P. plays the leading role in the economic system of socialism, its share in the fixed productive assets is about 90 per cent. Under the Constitution, "The land, its minerals, waters, and forests are the exclusive property of the state. The state owns the basic means of production in industry, construction, and agriculture; means of transport and communication; the banks; the property of state-run trade organisations and public utilities, and other state-run undertakings; most urban housing; and other property necessary for state purposes" (Art. 11).

The leading position of S.P. is determined by the fact that it embraces the industry and other main branches of the economy, and that the activity of the working class, the leading force of socialist society, is directly connected with it.

Collective-farm-and-cooperative property (q. v.) is developing and consolidating under the decisive influence of the state, for the principal means of agricultural production---land-belongs to the state. The state supplies the collective farms with agricultural machinery and equipment, fertilisers, and other material and technical means, and carries out the technological and technical re-equipment of all agricultural production.

S.P. is the decisive factor contributing to the advance of socialist production and the impovement of the people's well-being. In 1980, the state owned about 44,200 industrial enterprises and amalgamations, approximately 27,000 construction and assembly organisations, over 21,000 state farms, 90,000 communication centres, 271,000 communal service centres, over 225,000 retail trade shops, and over threefifth of all urban housing. Since the bulk of the means of production belong to the state, this provides the opportunity to develop the socialist economy dynamically and on a planned basis.

As socialist society advances, socialist property relations are impoving, state and collective-farm-- andcooperative forms of socialist property are drawing 263 closer together, and conditions are evolving for the gradual establishment of a single communist property.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ State Security.

Under Art. 73 of the USSR Constitution, provision of S.S. falls under the jurisdiction of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, as represented by its higher bodies of state authority and administration. Under Art. 131 of the USSR Constitution and Art. 14 of the Law on the Council of Ministers of the USSR, measures to ensure S.S. are to be taken by the USSR Council of Ministers as the higher executive and administrative body of state authority of the USSR.

The issue of S.S. is dealt with in a number of the Constitution's other articles as well as in its Preamble, which notes that to safeguard the country's security is one of the aims of the socialist state of the whole people. The Constitution of the USSR considers this a major function of the state, stressing that it is the concern of the entire state and of the whole people (Art. 31).

The responsibilities of bodies of state authority, social organisations, officials and citizens involved in ensuring S.S. are defined by the legislation of the USSR, as stipulated in Art. 32 of the Fundamental Law of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

The special organisation which carries out the basic functions to safeguard S.S. is the Committee for State Security of the USSR. Its bodies are engaged in daily work to prevent, expose and put an end to espionage and subversive activities conducted by the secret services of imperialist states and other political opponents of the Soviet Union.

The bodies of S.S. are an important political instrument of protecting the Soviet state of the whole people and Soviet society. "As long as there are exploiters in the world,'' Lenin noted, "... the power of the working people cannot survive without such an institution.'' On his initiative, in December 1917, the All-Russia Extraordinary Commission to Combat Counter-Revolution, Sabotage and Profiteering was set up. It was headed by Felix Dzcr/.hinsky and waged 264 an unrelenting struggle against internal and international counter-revolution, exposed numerous conspiracies against the USSR and prosecuted its enemies. Thus it served as a staunch defender of the working people's revolutionary gains.

As the Soviet state moved forward, the objectives of the bodies of S.S. were changing. At present, their chief purpose is to counteract the subversive activities of imperialist forces hostile to the USSR. The bodies of state security continue the revolutionary traditions evolved long ago. Their strength lies in the guidance and close control by the Communist Party and the subordination of all their work to the interests of the people and of the Soviet state.

Guaranteed S.S. establishes conditions that are conducive to the Soviet people exercising state power, to the smooth functioning of all the bodies of the socialist state of the whole people and the entire political system of the society of developed socialism.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ State of the Whole People

---see Socialist State of the Whole People.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Subsidiary Small-Holding

---see Personal Subsidiary Small-Holdings.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Suffrage

---see The Electoral System.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Support for the Struggle of Peoples for National
Liberation and Social Progress.

Art. 28 of the USSR Constitution reads, in part: "The foreign policy of the USSR is aimed at ... supporting the struggle of peoples for national liberation and social progress...''

The Great October Socialist Revolution ushered in the crisis of imperialism's colonial system. The victory of socialism in the USSR and the rout of nazism and Japanese militarism in the Second World War (where the decisive role was played by the Soviet Union), as well as the emergence of the world socialist system provided new, powerful stimuli for the growth of the national liberation movement. The unprecedented scale of the oppressed people's struggle resulted 265 in the collapse of colonialism, with over 100 young sovereign states emerging in the territories of former colonies and semi-colonies.

The CPSU regards alliance with peoples which have shaken off the yoke of colonialism and semi-- colonialism as one of the pillars of its foreign policy. This alliance rests on the shared interests of world socialism and the national liberation movement.

The Soviet state renders assistance and support to peoples struggling to win and consolidate their national independence. Although forms of this assistance may differ depending on circumstances (ranging from political and diplomatic assistance to economic and other aid), its main thrust has always been to repulse aggressors, uphold the right of the peoples to independent development, and protect peace and security in the world.

During the last few decades, the national liberation struggles in the world have scored new major victories. The people of Vietnam emerged victorious from their historic struggle. Prolonged anti-colonialist armed struggles of the patriotic forces of Angola, Mozambique and several other countries have been crowned with success. In a number of countries, such as Ethiopia, Laos, Kampuchea, and several others, the peoples have successfully defended their revolutionary gains. An important factor in these victories of the peoples of the world has been the fraternal solidarity and assistance of the Soviet Union and other socialist countries.

The all-round support of the Soviet Union and other socialist countries for the national liberation movement is fully in line with contemporary international law, including the provision in the UN Charter on the respect for and observance by all states of the right of peoples to self-determination and the UN Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples.

The USSR maintains and constantly expands cooperation with the newly independent countries in many spheres. This cooperation has been especially fruitful with countries of socialist orientation. 266 Treaties on friendship and cooperation with Angola, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Afghanistan, the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, the People's Republic of the Congo and other countries play a major role in this cooperation.

Cooperation with India features prominently in the USSR's relations with newly independent states. The Soviet Union has been consistently pursuing a policy of reinforcing links with this peace-loving country. Soviet-Indian friendship has become a tradition cherished by the two peoples.

The USSR considers it important to extend mutually beneficial cooperation with newly liberated states in economy, science and technology. The Soviet Union has participated in one form or another in the construction of major economic facilities in these countries, where tens of thousands of Soviet specialists are working.

The Soviet Union regards the non-aligned movement with over 90 member-countries, primarily newly liberated ones, an important factor in international relations. The strength behind this organisation is its opposition to imperialism, colonialism, war and aggression. The USSR is prepared to contribute to the establishment of equitable international economic relations with former colonies, and has taken practical steps to prove this.

As before, the Soviet Union will consistently pursue a policy of extending cooperation with newly liberated states and strengthening the alliance between world socialism and the national liberation movement.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Supreme Court of the USSR.

Under Art. 153 of the USSR Constitution, "The Supreme Court of the USSR is the highest judicial body in the USSR and supervises the administration of justice by the courts of the USSR and Union Republics within the limits established by law.''

The S.C. of the USSR is elected at a joint sitting of the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities at the first session of the newly elected USSR Supreme Soviet for the term of five years and consists 267 of a Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, members, and people's assessors. The Chairmen of the Supreme Courts of Union Republics are ex officio members of the S.C. of the USSR.

The S.C. of the USSR is accountable to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, which supervises its activity. Not less than once during its term of office, the S.C. of the USSR submits a report on its work to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and makes regular reports to its Presidium. Judges and people's assessors of the S.C. of the USSR are responsible and accountable to the USSR Supreme Soviet, and may be recalled or relieved of their duties before their term has expired in the manner prescribed by law. In the latter case, a by-election is held by a regular USSR Supreme Soviet session, and between sessions, by the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet, with the decree issued on this matter subsequently submitted for approval to the next regular session of the Supreme Soviet.

The S.C. of the USSR consists of the Plenary Session of the Court and three divisions (on civil cases, on criminal cases, and military cases). It is empowered to try civil and criminal cases-, as a court of first instanceall very important cases; as a court of appeal---to consider judgements passed by lower military tribunals (q. v.); as a supervising body---court decisions passed by military tribunals and the divisions of the S.C. of the USSR, as well as those passed by Supreme Courts of Union republics, if these decisions contradict the legislation of the USSR or infringe the interests of other Union republics. The S.C. of the USSR serves to guide and advise courts concerning the application of laws if problems arise during the court hearing of a case; the Supreme Court has the right to initiate legislation in the USSR Supreme Soviet; it also settles, within its jurisdiction, questions issuing from treaties concluded by the USSR.

The S.C. of the USSR was established on December 30, 1922, by the First USSR Congress of Soviets, which adopted the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR. The Treaty provided for the establishment of a S.C''. of the USSR to consolidate revolutionary 268 law and order in the country. Since it was formed the prerogatives and organisational structure of the S.C. of the USSR have been modified, but its position as the country's highest judicial body and its leading role in the consolidation of legality in the activities of all Soviet courts have remained unchanged. The influence of the S.C. of the USSR on court proceedings considerably increased after the adoption, on November 30, 1979, of the Law on the Supreme Court of the USSR, which determined its organisation and procedure under the 1977 Constitution of the USSR.

The Law on the Supreme Court of the USSR includes the effective provisions of the previous Regulation on the Supreme Court of the USSR and sums up the experience it has accumulated during its work to consolidate socialist legality and law and order in the country. The new Law has for the first time determined the procedure of convening a Plenary Session of the S.C. of the USSR and organising its work, the hearing of cases by the Plenary Session and by the divisions of the S.C. of the USSR, and the review of judgements they have passed. The Law has established the obligatory character of the guiding instructions given by the Plenary Session of the Supreme Court of the USSR to courts on questions of application of the law, and granted the Supreme Court the right to verify whether the courts have acted on these instructions.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Supreme Goal of Social Production under Socialism

is defined by Art. 15 of the USSR Constitution, which reads: "The supreme goal of social production under socialism is the fullest possible satisfaction of the people's growing material, and cultural and intellectual requirements.''

Lenin noted that public ownership of the means of production makes possible and necessary such economic development which is aimed at attaining the "full well-being and free, all-round development for all the members of society''. Under socialism, the growing material and cultural needs are satisfied according to the development standard of social production and 269 each citizen's personal contribution to it.

``Everything for the sake of the people, everything for the benefit of the people"---this is the invariable course followed by the Communist Party and the Soviet state. The goal of economic development is to solve the various problems involved in raising the people's living and cultural standard. These problems are dealt with comprehensively, embracing all aspects of people's lives: work, leisure, education, cultural pursuits, health protection and everyday life.

The CPSU and the Soviet state direct their efforts towards increasing the working people's standard of living. By 1985, the average monthly wages of factory and office workers had increased by 13 per cent, and the average monthly earnings of collective farmers, by 29 per cent, as compared with 1980. The pension system is being further developed. State allowances to families with children have been significantly increased. The system of public health is being further expanded. Large sums were allocated to the sphere of public education. Between 1981 and 1985, a total of 10.5 million people graduated from higher and secondary specialised educational establishments. Housing construction is carried out on avast scale: over 10 million flats were built during the period from 1981 to 1985. The social transformation of the villages and the gradual elimination of distinctions between the living standards of the urban and rural population is continuing.

A further improvement in the Soviet people's living standard will be secured by implementing the policy mapped out by the Communist Party that introduces intensive economic methods in order to raise the efficiency and quality of work.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Supreme Soviet of an Autonomous Republic.

"The highest body of state authority of an Autonomous Republic shall be the Supreme Soviet of that Republic" (Art. 143).

The basic principles determining the role and place of the S.S.s of the A. R.s set forth in the Constitution of the USSR and the Constitutions of the Union 270 republics which include Autonomous republics, have also been elaborated in the Constitutions of the Autonomous Republics. The organisation and functioning of the S. S.s of the A. R. reflect features common to all Soviets of People's Deputies, and to the Supreme Soviets in particular.

The S.S. of an A.R. is elected by the citizens of that republic on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot for the term or five years. The number of deputies and the representation are determined by the Constitution of each Autonomous republic with due account to the size of the population, its national make-up, the size of the territory, etc. For example, the Supreme Soviet of the Bashkir ASSR has 280 deputies, of the Daghestan ASSR-210 deputies, the Karelian ASSR---150 deputies, etc. Deputies are elected by constituencies with equal populations.

The S.S. of an A.R. is empowered to deal with all matters which are placed within the jurisdiction of the Autonomous Republic by the Constitution of the USSR, the Constitution of the Union Republic, which includes the given Autonomous Republic, and the Constitution of the Autonomous Republic. Adoption and amendment of the Constitution of an Autonomous Republic;endorsement of state plans for economic and social development, and of the republic's Budget, and of reports on their execution; and the formation of bodies accountable to the S.S. of the A.R. are the exclusive prerogative of the Supreme Soviet of an A.R. Apart from initiating legislation within the jurisdiction of an Autonomous Republic, its Supreme Soviet systematically controls the activity of all bodies accountable to it.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Supreme Soviet of a Union Republic.

"The highest body of state authority of a Union Republic shall be the Supreme Soviet of that Republic" (Art. 137). The S.S. of a U.R. is elected by the citizens of that republic on the basis of universal, equal, and direct suffrage by secret ballot for the term of five years. The number of deputies in Republican Supreme 271 Soviets differs and depends on the territory and population of the Union republic, and the volume of work carried out by its S.S. In 1982, the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR had 975 deputies, the Ukrainian SSR-650, the Uzbek SSR and the Kazakh SSR-510, the Byelorussian SSR-485, the Estonian SSR-285 and the Latvian SSR---325 deputies, etc.

The S.S. of a U.R. is empowered to deal with all matters within the jurisdiction of the Union republic under the Constitutions of the USSR and the Union republic. Adoption and amendment of the Constitution of a Union republic; endorsement of state plans for economic and social development of the Union republic, of the Union republic's Budget, and of reports on their execution; and the formation of bodies accountable to the S.S. of a U.R., i.e. the Union Republic's Council of Ministers, Supreme Court, Ministries and State Committees, and the People's Control Committee, are the exclusive prerogative of that Supreme Soviet.

Major questions relating to the organisation of the work of the S.S. of a U.R. are determined by the Constitution of the USSR (q. v.), the Constitution of the Union Republic (q. v.), and the Standing Orders of the S.S. of a U.R. Sessions of the S.S. of a U.R. are convened twice a year. Special sessions are convened by the Presidium of the S.S. of the U.R. at its discretion or on the proposal of not less than onethird of the Deputies.

The S.S. of a U.R. elects a Chairman and Vice-- Chairmen. The Chairman presides at the sittings of the S.S. of a U.R. and makes sure that its procedure is observed. The number of Vice-Chairmen differs form one republic to another (17 in the RSFSR; 4 in the UkSSR, the BSSR and the Lithuanian SSR; 2 in the Latvian SSR, etc.).

The S.S. of a U.R. carries out a great deal of legislative work, adopting Republican Codes and other legislative acts. The right to initiate legislation is vested in the Presidium of the S.S. of a U.R., its Council of Ministers, standing and other committees of the S.S. of a U.R., its deputies, the Supreme Court and the 272 Procurator-General of a Union republic, and in social organisations through their all-Union and Republican bodies. In the Union republic which includes Autonomous republics, this right is also vested in the Autonomous republics through their highest bodies of state authority.

Bills and other matters submitted to the S.S. of a U.R. are debated at its sittings. Where necessary, a bill or other matter may be referred to one or more committees for preliminary or additional consideration. Laws, decisions and other acts are adopted by a majority of the total number of Deputies of the S.S. of a U.R.

The S.S. of a U.R. conducts such important matters as analysing the state of affairs in a certain sector of state administration, settling the issues of highest state administration and controlling the activity of all bodies accountable to it.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

"The highest body of state authority of the USSR shall be the Supreme Soviet of the USSR" (Art. 108). The Supreme Soviet of the USSR represents the whole of the Soviet people, its will and interests.

The S.S. of the USSR is elected on the basis of universal, equal, and direct suffrage by secret ballot.

The S.S. of the USSR is the body which heads the whole system of Soviets of People's Deputies (q. v.). It also unites and heads the work of all other bodies of state authority, thus consolidating and strengthening the unity of state authority in the country. The role and place of the S.S. of the USSR determine the considerable scope of its jurisdiction, which allows it to deal with all major problems of the society's political, economic, and cultural life and efficiently control the activity of all other bodies of state authority.

Under the USSR Constitution, the S.S. of the USSR is empowered to deal with all matters within the jurisdiction of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. At the same time, the Constitution also outlines the range of issues which are the exclusive prerogative __PRINTERS_P_273_COMMENT__ 18--1192 273 of the S.S. of the USSR: the adoption and amendment of the Constitution of the USSR; admission of new Republics to the USSR; endorsement of the formation of new Autonomous republics and Autonomous regions; approval of the state plans for economic and social development, of the Budget of the USSR, and of reports on their execution; and the institution of bodies of the USSR accountable to it. Laws (q. v.) of the USSR are enacted by the S.S. of the USSR or by a popular vote (referendum) held by decision of the S.S. of the USSR.

The S.S. of the USSR consists of two chambers, the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities, a reflection of the fact that the Soviet Union is a multinational state.

The Soviet of the Union is elected by constituencies with equal populations, which are set up throughout the whole territory of the country.

The Soviet of Nationalities is elected so as to ensure equal representation in the Supreme Soviet of the population of the Union and Autonomous republics, Autonomous regions and areas, i.e., all national and state units, regardless of the size of their populations. Under the USSR Constitution, the Soviet of Nationalities is elected on the basis of the following representation: 32 deputies from each Union republic, 11 deputies from each Autonomous republic, five deputies from each Autonomous region, and one deputy from each Autonomous area. The two chambers of the S.S. of the USSR have equal rights. Each is vested with the right to initiate legislation. A law of the USSR is deemed adopted when it has been passed in each chamber of the S.S. of the USSR by a majority of the total number of its deputies. Joint sittings of the two chambers are presided over alternately by the Chairman of the Soviet of the Union and the Chairman of the Soviet of Nationalities.

The term of both chambers of the S.S. of the USSR is five years (four under the 1936 Constitution).

A new rule has been introduced by the 1977 Constitution which ensures equal organisational opportunities for the work of both chambers: "The Soviet 274 of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities shall have equal numbers of deputies" (Art. 110). Formerly, the principle of representation at the elections to the Soviet of the Union was one deputy for each 300,000 people. But, as the population of the USSR increased, the number of deputies to the Soviet of the Union was steadily growing. At present, the number of constituencies set up for the elections to the Soviet of the Union is established in accordance with the number of constituencies taking part in the elections to the Soviet of Nationalities.

In the event of disagreement between the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities, the matter at issue is referred for settlement to a conciliation commission formed by the chambers on a parity basis, after which it is considered for a second time by the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities at a joint sitting. If agreement is again not reached, the matter is postponed for debate at the next session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR or submitted by the Supreme Soviet to a popular vote (referendum) (q. v.).

Sessions of the S.S. of the USSR are convened twice a year. Special sessions are convened by the Presidium of the S.S. of the USSR at its discretion or on the proposal of a Union republic, or of not less than onethird of the Deputies of one of the chambers. A session of the Supreme Soviet consists of separate and joint sittings of the chambers, and of meetings of the standing committees of the chambers or commissions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR held between the sittings of the chambers.

The 1977 Constitution has clarified and expanded the list of bodies vested with the right to initiate legislation. The previous Constitution merely stated that this right belonged to both chambers equally. Art. 113 of the 1977 Constitution reads: "The right to initiate legislation in the Supreme Soviet of the USSR is vested in the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Council of Ministers of the USSR, Union Republics through their highest bodies of state authority, commissions of the Supreme 275 Soviet of the USSR and standing committees of its chambers, Deputies of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Supreme Court of the USSR and the ProcuratorGeneral of the USSR.

``The right to initiate legislation is also vested in social organisations through their All-Union bodies.''

The procedure for proposing, debating and passing bills is determined by the Constitution of the USSR and the Standing orders of the S.S. of the USSR. Bills and other matters submitted to the S.S. of the USSR are debated by its chambers at separate or joint sittings. Where necessary, a bill or other matter may be referred to one or more committees for preliminary or additional consideration. Bills and other very important matters of state may be submitted for nationwide discussion by a decision of the S.S. of the USSR or its Presidium.

In recent years, the S.S. of the USSR has been working vigorously in various fields. In implementing the programme of legislative measures relating to the adoption of the 1977 Constitution, it has promulgated new laws: on the Council of Ministers of the USSR (q. v.), on elections to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, on citizenship of the USSR (q. v.), on the procedure of concluding, executing and denouncing treaties signed by the USSR, on the Supreme Court of the USSR (q. v.), on the Procurator's Office of the USSR (q. v.), on State Arbitration (q. v.), on People's Control (q. v.), on the Bar (q. v.), etc. The S.S. of the USSR is taking an increasingly active part in drawing up state plans and the Budget, in management and control. The provisions of the Constitution on the accountability of the highest bodies of state authority to the S.S. of the USSR are being mo're strictly observed. A great deal of work is done by the S.S. of the USSR in the field of foreign policy and towards establishing and maintaining inter-parliamentary contacts.

[276] __ALPHA_LVL1__ T __ALPHA_LVL2__ Taxation.

"The state exercises control over the measure of labour and of consumption in accordance with the principle of socialism: 'From each according to his ability, to each according to his work'. It fixes the rate of taxation on taxable income" (Art. 14 of the Constitution of the USSR).

Taxes are compulsory payments levied by the state on enterprises, economic organisations and individual citizens. Taxation is used to finance the revenue side of the national budget. The structure and role of T. are determined by the class nature of the state. In societies based on exploitation, the population, chiefly the working people, is levied, in direct and indirect taxes, a total of up to 80 per cent of all national budget revenues. At the same time, when taxes are levied on major monopolistic associations and enterprises, particularly those fulfilling military orders, various tax rebates are widely applied, including deductions from their taxable income, or exemption of various funds from T., such as the reserve or depreciation funds, etc.

In a socialist state, taxes are a means of planned redistribution of a share of the national income. An overwhelming share of the revenue, or over 90 per cent of the national budget, is made up of the income produced by the socialist economy (as turnover tax or profit deductions).

In the USSR, the rate of taxes levied on the population (income tax, taxes levied on single men, on people with small families, the agricultural tax, local taxes and other duties) in the total volume of T. is constantly being reduced. In the 1980 national budget the share of the taxes levied on the population accounted for less than 8.1 per cent of the total. The taxes are returned to the population through the redistribution of a part of the social funds earmarked for the development of cultural facilities, raising pensions, and for other forms of social and cultural services.

The minimum tax-exempt income rate in the USSR is constantly rising; tax rebates are also expanding. 277 The current minimum untaxed wage rate has been set at 70 roubles per month. People disabled in, and other veterans of, the Great Patriotic War, disabled workers with first and second category disabilities, recipients of the Order of Glory of all three classes, and some other categories, are entitled to substantial tax rebates.

The rate of T. from the population in the USSR is differentiated depending on the wages or salaries and other income.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Territory of a Union Republic

---see Union Republic; Territory of the USSR.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Territory of the USSR.

"The territory of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is a single entity and comprises the territories of the Union Republics.

``The sovereignty of the USSR extends throughout its territory" (Art. 75 of the USSR Constitution).

The T. of the USSR is a space in which the state authority of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is exercised, and at the same time the material basis of Soviet society is being built. The T. of the USSR covers 22,402.2 thousand square kilometres, including the area of the White Sea (90,000 square kilometres) and of the Sea of Azov (37,300 square kilometres), which have not been included into the territories of individual republics.

The T. of the USSR is that part of the Earth with land and its mineral resources, waters and the air space above the land belonging to the USSR and falling under its exclusive authority. A distinctive feature of the Soviet state's territorial supremacy is the fact that it concentrates both state authority and ownership of the land in its hands. The exclusive right of ownership extends not only to the land but to its subsoil, the waters, the territorial sea, and the coastal shelf.

The demarcation line defining the boundaries of the USSR's state authority as a sovereign state is the state border of the USSR (q. v.). The Soviet state establishes and alters the regime of its borders and of border and other special zones, the regime and conditions of 278 navigation in its air space and territorial waters, the conditions of navigation in and use of its waters, and ensures the protection of the country's territorial integrity.

The T. of a Union republic is a space in which the state authority of that Union republic is exercised, and at the same time a constituent part of the T. of the USSR as a single union multinational state (see Union Republic). The boundaries between Union republics may be altered by mutual agreement of the republics concerned and are subject to approval by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Possessing territorial supremacy, the Union republics exercise extensive powers when dealing with questions of their territorial-administrative structure.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Trade Unions.

In accordane with Art. 7 of the Constitution of the USSR, T.U. participate, in accordance with the aims laid down in their rules, in managing state and public affairs, and in deciding political, economic, and social and cultural matters.

T.U., the most numerous mass organisations in the USSR, unite on a voluntary basis people of all trades and professions. Their membership is over 137 million, i. e. over 98 per cent of the country's gainfully employed population. The degree of occupational organisation of working people in the USSR is much higher than that in the most developed capitalist countries, such as the USA, Britain and Japan, where the rate of unionisation is only 30--40 per cent of all workers. The fact that the Soviet trade unions embrace almost the entire work force of the country reflects the high degree of organisation and social involvement of working people under socialism.

In the developed socialist society the social base of the T.U. has been considerably extended due to the influx of collective farmers. By early 1981 approximately 97 per cent of all collective farmers had joined trade unions. This has had a positive effect on the growth of agricultural production, and the improvement of the living and working conditions of collective farmers. The working class accounts for 279 nearly 60 per cent of the total membership of the Soviet T.U.

The legal status of the Soviet trade unions, their rights and duties are defined by the Constitution of the USSR, the Fundamentals or Labour Legislation of the USSR and Union Republics, statutes on the rights of the factory, plant, and local trade union committees, codes of laws on labour of the Union republics, and other legislative acts. In accordance with the Fundamentals of Labour Legislation, "trade unions shall function in conformity with the rules they adopt and shall not be required to register with state bodies''. Trade union activities are regulated by the rules of T.U. of the USSR and rules of branch T.U. Trade unions are organised on an industry basis along the lines of democratic centralism (q. v.). The supreme body of the T.U. of the USSR is the Congress, which elects the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions.

Soviet T.U. have two major concerns: the national economy and improved production; and the rights and interests of the working people, their living and working conditions.

T.U. take an active part in state-building, drafting laws on matters of production, working and living conditions and culture, and staffing bodies of economic management of enterprises; they are also instrumental in improving the functioning of the state and economic mechanisms, and increasing popular control over their activities, and take part in the functioning of people's control (q. v.) bodies. T.U. have the right to nominate candidates for elections of Deputies to Soviets, delegate their representatives to electoral commissions and to initiate legislation.

Actively promoting greater involvement of the people in work and the social sphere, T.U. encourage their participation in managing production and organise socialist competition, communist labour drives, technological innovation drives and other activities jointly with organs of economic management.

T.U. use workers' meetings, standing production conferences and collective agreements to involve working people at large in actively participating in decision-- 280 making on all matters of work collectives' everyday life. The participants in standing production conferences advance and discuss proposals directed towards increasing the efficiency and quality of work, improving the organisation of production, and making a more thrifty use of material resources.

T.U. show great concern for occupational health and safety measures, improvement of working conditions and mechanisation of manual operations.

T.U. operate the state social insurance programme, concern themselves with the health of working people, improving their living conditions, organising their rest and leisure, promoting physical culture, sports, amateur art activities, etc. The entire cultural and educational effort of the T.U. is designed to help the working people develop communist consiousness.

Under Soviet legislation T.U. enjoy broad rights and opportunities in protecting the rights of the working people, in supervising and controlling the observance or labour legislation and health and safety regulations, in public control over housing construction and distribution of housing, as well as over the work of enterprises of trade, public catering and the service sector.

The Soviet state provides material, organisational and other types of assistance to the T.U. The Constitution of the USSR guarantees the protection of the property of trade unions which they require for the carrying out of their purposes under their rules (Art. 10), as well as the rights and legitimate interests of T.U. The state has also established penalties for officials, including responsibility under criminal law, for obstructing the activities of T.U. and their organs.

Soviet T.U. conduct their activities under the guidance of the CPSU. The Party regards trade unions as its reliable base among the masses and a powerful tool of extending democracy and involving working people in socialist construction. Communists, who are also trade union members, help the Party to guide the T.U. This contributes to the greater effectiveness of 281 T.U. and its growing prestige among working people.

The Soviet T.U. work actively for peace and unity in the international trade union movement and maintain contacts with trade unions in most countries of the world. They are a collective member of the World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU).

[282] __ALPHA_LVL1__ U __ALPHA_LVL2__ Union Republic.

"A Union Republic is a sovereign Soviet socialist state that has united with the other Soviet Republics in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" (Art. 76 of the USSR Constitution).

The sovereignty of the USSR does not negate the sovereignty of a U.R. Proceeding from common aspirations and goals, the working people of all U.R.s channel their efforts into making the Soviet state stronger; and, in turn, the might of the USSR as a whole safeguards the sovereign rights of each U.R.

A Union Republic exercises independent state authority in its territory outside the spheres which are covered by the jurisdiction of the Union under the USSR Constitution. Each U.R. has its own Constitution (see Constitution of a Union Republic), which conforms to the Constitution of the USSR, with the specific features of the republic being taken into account, its own higher bodies of state authority and administration, and the highest judicial body. The territory of a Union republic may not be altered without its consent. The boundaries between U.R.s may be altered by mutual agreement of the republics concerned, subject to ratification by the Union. A U.R. determines its administrative-territorial division (q. v.), has its own legislation, and retains the right freely to secede from the USSR.

As an equal member of the Soviet federation, each U.R. takes part in decision-making in matters that come within the jurisdiction of the Union through the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (q. q. v.), the Government of the USSR and other bodies of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Each U.R. elects 32 deputies to the Soviet of Nationalities of the USSR Supreme Soviet. The U.R.s are represented also in the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet, the Council of Ministers of the USSR, and the Supreme Court of the USSR(q. q.v.).

A U.R. ensures integral economic and social development on its territory, facilitates the exercise of the 283 powers of the USSR on its territory, and implements the decisions of the higher bodies of state authority and administration of the USSR. In matters that come within its jurisdiction, a U.R. co-ordinates and controls the activity of enterprises, institutions, and organisations subordinate to the Union.

A U.R. has the right to enter into relations with other states, conclude treaties with them, exchange diplomatic and consular representatives, and take part in the work of international organisations.

The Constitutions of U.R.s determine the aims they pursue when joining the USSR, the composition of the republics and their jurisdiction, and describe the national emblem, national flag and the capital of each U.R. The jurisdiction of a U.R., as represented by its higher bodies of state authority and administration, covers a wide range of matters in various sectors of life, with due consideration for the specific features of national-state, and administrative-territorial structure of each republic. A U.R. deals independently with legislative and administrative matters that come within its jurisdiction.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Unions of Creative Workers in the USSR.

Under Art. 7 of the USSR Constitution, unions of creative workers, alongside with other social organisations, participate, in accordance with the aims laid down in their rules, in managing state and public affairs and in deciding political, economic, and social and cultural matters.

The U.C.W. are mass organisations uniting professional workers in literature and the arts in an effort to encourage the creation of quality works of art on the basis of the method of socialist realism. These unions encourage their members to develop their political awareness and initiative, and protect their members' rights and interests. The establishment and work of unions of creative workers is a major guarantee of the freedom of artistic work granted to Soviet citizens under Art. 47 of the Constitution.

The USSR has Unions of Architects, Journalists, Cinematographers, Composers, Writers and Artists. Each functions along the principles laid down in its 284 Rules, which define the objectives of the Union's work, the rights and duties of its members and its organisational structure.

The U.C.W. have a right to nominate candidates to Soviets of People's Deputies, send their representatives to electoral commissions, and initiate legislation. They concern themselves with improving the material and living conditions of their members, protect copyrights, and popularise Soviet literature and art. To pursue the objectives set down in their Rules, various funds and facilities have been established, e.g., the Literary, Art and Musical Funds, the Board for Popularising Literature and Art, Creative Workers' Holiday Homes, workshops, etc.

The U.C.W. are doing a great deal to help their younger members develop into true writers and artists. This work is headed by special councils ( commissions) for work with the youth. The U.C.W. promote amateur art by heading literary groups, studios and groups of amateur artists, cinema-fans' clubs, etc. Several unions have set up special commissions for work with amateur artistic groups.

The U.C.W. work in close contact with state bodies, especially the USSR Ministry of Culture, as well as with trade unions, the Young Communist League and other social organisations. They cooperate in holding creative workers' meetings and seminars, contests, exhibitions and festivals, and conduct an energetic and diversified campaign aimed at promoting the aesthetic education of the people.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Universal Military Service.

Art. 3 1 of the Constitution reads, in part: "In order to defend the gains of socialism, the peaceful labour of the Soviet people, and the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the state, the USSR maintains armed forces and has instituted universal military service.''

Compulsory military service was introduced in the country on May 28, 1918, by a decision of the All-- Russia Central Executive Committee. Prior to that, the Red Army and Navy were formed on a volunteer basis.

Military service in the USSR Armed Forces is 285 compulsory for all males who have reached the age of 18, irrespective of their nationality, religion, education, or social and property status. The Constitution states that defence of Socialist Motherland is the concern of the whole people and the sacred duty of every citizen.

Military service consists of active service and service in the reserve. The term of active service for privates, sailors, sergeants and sergeant-majors is from one and a half to three years. Women between the ages of 19 and 40 who have medical or other special training may be accepted for active service only on a volunteer basis. In wartime, they may be called up for auxiliary or special service upon the decision of the USSR Council of Ministers.

Servicemen and reservists in military training enjoy all the rights and have the same duties as the other citizens of the USSR.

The Soviet Constitution also declares that " military service in the ranks of the Armed Forces of the USSR is an honourable duty of Soviet citizens'', and the Soviet people display a very conscientious attitude towards fulfilling it. In the years of the Great Patriotic War, 1941--1945, great heroism was displayed in the Soviet Army as it struggled to defeat nazism. Every year sees an increase in the number of young men who honourably perform in military service, mastering military science and gaining a political education.

Another form of military service is territorial military training pursued by citizens of the USSR independently of the regular army: primary military training at general secondary and vocational schools and other educational establishments, the training of experts for the Armed Forces of the USSR by the USSR Voluntary Society for the Assistance to the Army, Air Force and Navy, etc.

Evasion of military service is punishable under the criminal and administrative law of the USSR, and carelessness in performing it, by disciplinary measures or fines.

[286] __ALPHA_LVL1__ V __ALPHA_LVL2__ Vocational Guidance

---see Labour.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Vocational Training

---see Labour,

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Voluntary Societies.

Under Art. 47 of the USSR Constitution, the state supports voluntary societies, thus guaranteeing freedom of scientific, technical and artistic work.

V.S. are social organisations which give people an opportunity to pursue their interests in the field of science, technology, art, design, sports, etc., and help their members to increase their political awareness and initiative.

The scale and objectives of the activities of the various societies differ a great deal (the country has ailUnion, republican and local societies), and this makes it possible to meet the requirements of virtually every individual and at the same time promote the interests of society as a whole. The network of V.S. embraces the following types of association: cultural and educational (the Ail-Union Znaniye (Knowledge) Society, the All-Union Philatelic Society, the All-Union Book Lovers' Society, and societies for protection of historical and cultural monuments, etc.; amateur art ( theatrical societies, choirs, cinema-lovers' groups, etc.); scientific (societies under the USSR Academy of Sciences and the Academies of Sciences of Union Republics, medical and pedagogical societies, etc.); design groups; sports and societies formed to facilitate the country's defences (the USSR Voluntary Society for the Assistance to the Army, Air Force and Navy, automobile, hunting and fishing societies); public aid societies (the union of the societies of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent of the USSR, the society for rescue on the water, volunteer fire brigades, societies of blind and deaf, etc.); nature-lovers'societies (the society for nature protection, the society of bee-keepers, etc.); societies of friendship with the peoples of foreign countries (the Union of Soviet Societies for Friendship and Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries).

287

Voluntary societies enjoy the same constitutional rights as other non-government organisations. In accordance with their Rules, they take part in managing state and public affairs and deciding political, economic, social and cultural matters (Art. 7 of the USSR Constitution).

The role of V.S. acquires particular importance under developed socialism. They contribute appreciably to improving socialist social relations, help their members to assimilate communist ideals and principles, and involve the working people in administering public affairs.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Voting.

Under the Constitutions of the USSR and the Constitutions of the Union and Autonomous republics, V. at elections to the Soviets of People's Deputies and peoples judges to district (city) people's courts is secret (Arts 99 and 152 of the USSR Constitution). Art. 152 also establishes that people's assessors of district (city) people's courts are elected by a show of hands.

The legislation currently in force in the USSR contains rules which determine the character of V. when adopting decisions by bodies and meetings. The Laws on the Elections to the Soviets of People's Deputies adopted in 1978--1979 provide for V. by a show of hands when adopting a decision by the electoral commission. However, in a number of cases, the character of the V. is not specified by law, and the body or meeting must decide which system of V. should be used in each particular case.

[288] __ALPHA_LVL1__ W __ALPHA_LVL2__ Wages and Salaries

---see People's Incomes.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Work Collective,

the principal cell of socialist society, a component part of its economic, political and social system. The legal principles of its organisation and activity, its powers of participation in managing the affairs of the state and society, enterprises, institutions and organisations are established by the Constitution of the USSR and the Law on Work Collectives and Their Greater Role in Managing Enterprises, Institutions and Organisations, passed in June 1983.

The W.C. is a body of workers employed together in labour activity at a state or social enterprise, institution, organisation, collective farm, or any other cooperative organisation. This activity is based on socialist ownership of the means of production and planned development of the economy, and is carried out along the principles of comradely cooperation and mutual assistance, and the unity of state, public and personal interests.

Organised and guided by the CPSU, and bodies of state authority and administration, W.C.s perform economic, political and social functions aimed at consolidating and developing the social system of the USSR and the socialist way of life, involving the working people in the management of the state and public affairs, and protecting the lawful rights and interests of the working people.

The first duty and obligation of W.C.s is to ensure highly productive labour, implement the decisions of the Party, abide by Soviet laws and government decisions, reliably fulfil state plans and contractual obligations, raise work efficiency and quality, tighten labour, production and state discipline, encourage the professional and socio-political initiative of the members of the collective, and help them to assimilate the lofty moral principles of the Soviet society.

Depending on the form of socialist ownership on the basis of which they function and on their place in the system of socialist cooperation of labour, work __PRINTERS_P_289_COMMENT__ 19--1192 289 collectives are grouped into state, cooperative, servicing, educational, scientific, creative, etc. W.C.s are also grouped into basic ones (those of enterprises, institutions and organisations), those of structural links (i.e. of a factory shop, department or farm), and primary ones (those of a team, link, or sector).

The socialist W.C. includes both those directly engaged in the production of material and cultural wealth and the administration which directs its activities and is headed by a state-appointed (or elected by the collective) leader, who is accountable both to the collective and to the state as a whole (director, manager, head chairman). Officials in a W.C.---the administration---are an indispensable part of the collective as they bear responsibility for the unity of the collective and state interests.

W.C.s serve as primary cells of social organisations, promote new, socialist characteristics of working people and develop relations of friendship and comradely assistance. They reflect a major feature of the socialist way of life: the responsibility of each towards the collective, and of the collective, for each of its members.

The guiding and leading role in the life of a W.C. belongs to its Party organisation, the political vanguard of the collective. The trade union and the Young Communist League and their elective bodies, which take part in settling economic, social and cultural issues, and encourage the people's activity and initiative, figure prominently in the work collective.

The Law on Work Collectives has further developed Art. 8 of the USSR Constitution concerning the role of W.C.s in managing enterprises, institutions and organisations. It has defined their powers in the planning of economic and social development; protection of socialist property, the rational use of material resources; organisation, evaluation and remuneration of labour; distribution and use of the economic incentives funds; training and improving the skills and placing of personnel; establishing labour discipline; improvement of the people's social, cultural, housing and daily conditions, etc.

290

The powers given by the Law to W.C.s in managing enterprises, institutions and organisations are realised directly through general meetings (or conferences) of the members of the collective, and between meetings, through social organisations functioning within the collective in accordance with their Rules and Soviet laws; through the management and administration of an enterprise, institution or organisation in accordance with its powers or on behalf of the W.C.; through the collective efforts of the administrative and elective bodies of Party, trade union and YCL organisations.

At least twice a year general meetings (conferences) convened by trade union committees and the management consider the more important questions of the activities of the W.C.

Questions to be discussed may be suggested by Party, trade union and YCL organisations, tne management, bodies of people's control, standing production conferences, jointly by the management and social organisations, and by individual members of the collective.

The decisions passed by the meeting (conference), in conformity with its powers and the legislation in force, are obligatory for the members of the collective and the management. Control over the implementation and observance of decisions are carried out by the trade union committee and by the management in accordance with its powers or on behalf of the meeting (conference); they are obliged to inform the work collective about the measures taken to carry out the decisions.

W.C.s are playing an increasingly important role in managing and planning production, training personnel, improving the working and living conditions of its members, tightening discipline and helping people to evolve a communist attitude to work.

The development and improvement of the team method of organisation and remuneration of labour has played a significant part in this respect. The Law on Work Collectives outlines the extensive rights and responsibilities of production teams which plan the work to be done, determine the composition and size 291 of the team, place personnel, maintain production and labour discipline, assess the contribution of each member of the team and the size of the remuneration each will receive. This is done by the team's collective bodies: the meetings of team members and team councils.

The team method of labour organisation meets the requirements of modern production, facilitates attaining social and production targets, encourages employee initiative and raises the workers' role in managing the affairs of the enterprise. At present the team method of labour organisation and remuneration has become predominant.

While the Constitution has granted extensive powers to work collectives in managing the affairs of their enterprise or organisation, it also outlines their authority in managing state and public affairs: they have a say in the distribution of social consumption funds; nominate candidates to the Soviets; hear reports of the Deputies they have nominated; hear reports on the work of the executive committees of the Soviets; send their representatives to take part in civil and criminal proceedings (Arts. 23, 100, 107, 149, 162).

The Law on W.C.s gives these collectives the opportunity to discuss bills and decisions of local Soviets which affect the interests of W.C.s, various state, economic, cultural and social matters submitted for discussion by local Soviets and bodies accountable to them, as well as other aspects of the country's state and public life. The W.C.s may also offer suggestions and recommendations.

The Law establishes that opinions and suggestions of W.C.s are to be taken into consideration by bodies of state authority and administration when passing decisions affecting the activities of the enterprise, institution or organisation in question, and that the former are obliged to inform W.C.s about their work, the decisions passed and measures taken.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Working Class.

In accordance with the Fundamental Law of the USSR, the working class is the leading force of Soviet society (Preamble to the Constitution of the USSR).

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The leading role of the W.C. in Soviet society is objectively determined by the place it occupies in socialist social production. The W.C. has been and remains the main productive force of society. Most of its members are employed in industry, the most important sector of the national economy. The workers' labour is intimately linked to state property which is the predominant part of all socialist property.

What makes the social and economic status of the W.C. unique in the socialist society is the fact that owing to existence of the socialist system and the entire structure of social relationships, it not only creates the main material values but also exerts a decisive influence on the direction of the development of productive forces and of all spheres of social life. On the other hand, the W.C. in the capitalist society has only one function-, producing material values; production management and decision-making are concentrated in the hands of capitalist who own the means of production.

A characteristic feature of Soviet society is the growing role of the W.C. and its increasing numbers. The Party's policy of industrialisation contributed to a sharp increase of the W.C. in the total population of the USSR. While in 1928 workers accounted for only 12.4 per cent of the population, in 1985 their share reached 61.6 per cent. Today there are over 81 million workers in the country, or two-thirds of the gainfully employed population. Having grown into the most numerous class, workers now represent the majority of the working people in the USSR.

The enhanced leading role of the W.C. has become possible as a result of its greater ideological and political maturity, higher level of education and occupational qualifications. Whereas in 1939 there were 87 workers with secondary (complete and incomplete) or higher education per 1,000 workers, in 1970 the figure increased to 590 and in 1982 to 800. Today three-quarters of the country's workers have secondary (complete and incomplete) or higher education. The character of the modern workers' labour is changing: it is becoming increasingly intellectual, with the number 293 of highly skilled workers (machine operators, assembly workers, adjusters, etc.) constantly growing.

The Soviet worker is characterised by a highly developed sense of collectivism and team spirit. The socialist system rules out the possibility of putting different categories of the W.C. against one another, a technique frequently used by capitalists to achieve their ends. The feeling of comradely solidarity is inextricably linked with the workers' high degree of organisation and discipline. These qualities have acquired special significance during the revolution in science and technology. Not only are the workers developing closer ties with those working next to them, they are gaining an appreciation for the work of their comrades in other industries, as well as that of designers, engineers and scientists. At the same time the influence of each individual worker on the production process has grown immeasurably, along with their responsibility for the common cause.

The W.C. plays an important role not only in industry but also in agriculture. State-farm workers represent a major segment of the W.C. Their share in the total number of persons engaged in agriculture in the USSR is over 30 per cent. It might be added that the role of the working class in agricultural production is growing as agricultural work evolves into a type of industrial work.

The best Soviet workers possess specialised knowledge, a broad outlook, a creative attitude towards work and a high cultural level. Soviet workers know that they are the real masters of the economy and feel that they are responsible for everything that takes place in Soviet society. Such workers are active in public life, and the ideals of the Party and communism represent the cornerstone of their world outlook.

The number of workers who are Communist Party members is constantly growing (as of January 1, 1982, there were about 7.8 million workers in the CPSU or 43.7 per cent of the total membership; in 1981--1985, workers accounted for 59 per cent of all new members). Representatives of the W.C. also play an important role in bodies of state authority (workers account 294 for over 35 per cent of the deputies to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and over 45 per cent of deputies to local Soviets), and in mass organisations. The working class promotes the best men to hold positions of authority in the state, economic and cultural spheres.

The W.C. has always been the initiator of glorious endeavours of the Soviet people. In April 1919 workers organised the first communist subbotnik (day of voluntary work) in the country's history which was baptised by Lenin as "a great beginning''. The wonderful tradition of the first subbotniks was continued in socialist competition (q. v.) and other mass initiatives designed to improve economic and other social relations.

The W.C. has been the motive force behind the process of the elimination of differences between the classes and the emergence of classless society. Its ideology, moral standards and interests are now shared by all other social strata of the USSR.

The Soviet W.C. exerts its vigorous influence on all spheres of social life, both directly and through the CPSU. The guiding, organising and leading activity of the Party, which expresses the interests of the working class and the whole of the Soviet people, is in turn the most important condition for the reinforcement of the leading role of the W.C.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ Working Time.

The Constitution of the USSR proclaims that the source of the growth of the social wealth and of the well-being of the people, and of each individual, is the labour, free from exploitation, of Soviet people. The country's Fundamental Law also determines that "citizens of the USSR have the right to rest and leisure''.

``This right is ensured by the establishment of a working weel< not exceeding 41 hours, for workers and other employees, a shorter working day in a number of trades and industries, and shorter hours for night work" (Art. 41 of the USSR Constitution).

The Fundamentals of Legislation of the USSR and the Union republics on Labour provide for shorter working hours for workers and other employees 295 between the ages of 16 and 18 (36 hours a week). Shorter hours are also provided for workers and other employees in health-hazardous oecupations (not more than 36 hours a week). Certain categories of medical personnel are entitled to a working day of 5.5 hours.

The general provision for all categories of workers and other employees is the five-day working week with two days off. The length of daily work (shift) depends on work regulations and schedules, with the mandatory observance of the length of the working week established by law.

Enterprises where it is not practical to maintain the five-day working week operate on a six-day working week with one day off, with the duration of the working day not allowed to exceed seven hours (with the working week of 41 hours) or 6 hours (with the working week of 36 hours). On the eve of holidays and other days off, the length of a working day under a six-day week schedule is not to exceed 6 hours.

Persons working the night shift normally work one hour less each working day. Exceptions to this rule are determined by law. An incomplete working day or an incomplete working week may be established by agreement between the management on the one hand and the workers and other employees on the other, with corresponding changes in pay.

Under existing legislation overtime work is generally not allowed. In exceptional cases it can be permitted by a decision of the factory or plant local trade union committee, but it must not be in excess of 4 hours during two consecutive days or 120 hours a year per worker or other employee. It is not permissible to assign women who have children under eight years of age to overtime work. Similarly, night work and work during holidays is not allowed for pregnant women and nursing mothers.

The Party and Government show special concern for improving the working and living conditions of women. They have mapped out a complex of measures designed to enable women with small children to work an incomplete working day or an incomplete working week with flexible schedules or at home.

296

When intensive field work makes it imperative for state farms to increase the length of the working day, such an increase is allowed, but the working day may not be in excess of ten hours. The duration of the working day in collective farms is determined in accordance with the Model Collective Farm Rules.

__ALPHA_LVL2__ World System of Socialism.

"The foreign policy of the USSR is aimed at ... consolidating the positions of world socialism...'' (Art. 28 of the Constitution of the USSR).

The W.S. of S. is the totality of sovereign socialist states led by the working class and its vanguard, the Marxist-Leninist parties. The formation of the W.S. of S. began with the Great October Socialist Revolution, which ushered in an era of mankind's transition from capitalism to communism. The establishment of the world system of socialism was the immediate result of the victory of anti-fascist forces in World War II, in which the Soviet Union played the decisive role. In 1944 through 1949, the socialist path of development was adopted by Albania, Bulgaria, China, Czechoslovakia, the GDR, Hungary, Korea, Poland, Romania, Vietnam, and Yugoslavia. Somewhat earlier, at the beginning of the 1940s, Mongolia, where an anti-feudal and anti-imperialist revolution had taken place as early as 1921, began building socialism. At the turn of the 1960s, a socialist revolution took place in Cuba. In 1975, Laos began building the foundations of socialism.

The socialist countries' close interaction, based on common political, social, economic and ideological principles and aimed at strengthening the positions of individual states and the world system of socialism as a whole, and at gaining the victory in their historical contest with capitalism, is an objective law of social development in the socialist countries. By the same token, the establishment and development of the new system in each country requires that the laws of socialist revolution and the building of socialism which are common to all the countries be put to a creative use. All of the above elements make up an objective 297 foundation tor the establishment within the world system of socialism of a new type of international relations, just, equitable and fraternal. The establishment and improvement of the new type of international relations is a long and complicated process. Its success depends primarily on the positions of the ruling parties in the socialist countries and on their adherence to the principles of Marxism-Leninism and proletarian internationalism. A departure by the ruling parties from these positions inevitably has grave consequences for the cause of socialist development.

The main tendency in the W.S. of S., as in the past, is that towards greater cohesion and unity among the socialist states and the development of their cooperation in all fields.

The Soviet state and the CPSU keep the promotion of friendship and cooperation with the socialist countries in the focus of their unremitting attention. "The USSR, as part of the world system of socialism and of the socialist community,'' states Art. 30 of the Fundamental Law of the USSR, "promotes and strengthens friendship, cooperation, and fraternal mutual assistance with other socialist countries on the basis of the principle of socialist internationalism, and takes an active part in socialist economic integration and the socialist international division of labour.''

It is in the above spirit that the Soviet Union develops its relations with the countries of the socialist community, such as Bulgaria, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, the GDR, Hungary, Laos, Mongolia, Poland, Romania and Vietnam. The countries adhere to common views of principle on all the major issues of social and economic development and international politics.

This close cooperation is based on the interaction of the fraternal Communist parties. It is effected in the course of summit negotiations and friendly meetings, held to discuss the long-term outlook for the development of relations among the parties and countries and the pivotal problems of international politics; in the course of exchanges of party and government delegations, now taking place regularly; in the practice of consultative meetings of secretaries of the parties' 298 Central Committees on the questions of international relations, ideological, and party organisational activities. Relations between local party organisations in the fraternal countries are developing on a systematic basis. Cooperation among government bodies, social organisations and production collectives in the fraternal countries is developing fruitfully, as are creative, ideological and cultural contacts.

Economic cooperation among the socialist countries within the framework of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance is gaining momentum on a planned basis. Over the years of socialist development, a socialist type of international division of labour has evolved, of which socialist economic integration (q. v.) is the highest manifestation; the fraternal countries now possess diversified experience of industrial organisation, management and solving economic problems. The results of their joint endeavor include the Soyuz gas pipeline, the Mir energy system, the UstTlim pulp-and-paper factory (USSR), the Erdenet ore-- dressing combine in Mongolia, and other large-scale constructions projects. The cooperation has been spreading to the new spheres, including outer space, where international crews now participate in the Intercosmos programme.

At present, the CMEA countries are the most dynamically developing group of states in the world. Their overall economic growth rate over the last decade has been twice as high as that of the developed capitalist countries. While 30 years ago the CMEA members trailed Western Europe in industrial potential, at present the volume of industrial production in the CMEA countries is about twice as high as that of the Common Market (EEC) countries. The CMEA now produces about one-third of the world industrial output, compared to under 19 per cent in 1950. The CMEA countries account for about 25 per cent of the total national income of the world.

The Soviet Union wants to see the best combination of the interests of every one of the fraternal countries with the common interests found in all spheres of their cooperation, and the best use of vast opportunities for 299 Emacs-File-stamp: "/home/ysverdlov/leninist.biz/en/1986/SCAD300/20070925/300.tx" __EMAIL__ webmaster@leninist.biz __OCR__ ABBYY 6 Professional (2007.09.28) __WHERE_PAGE_NUMBERS__ bottom __FOOTNOTE_MARKER_STYLE__ [0-9]+ __ENDNOTE_MARKER_STYLE__ [0-9]+ exchange of experience. Proceeding from the fact that the essential battlefield in the competition with capitalism is in the economic sphere, the Soviet Union, jointly with the other socialist countries, is directing its efforts towards the solution of the most vital economic problems for the benefit of the entire socialist community.

The process of drawing closer together of the socialist states continues. The process does not eliminate their national specific features or historical characteristics. The efforts of the Soviet Union are directed primarily at making the socialist community stronger, and the fraternal countries' comradely cooperation and socialist mutual assistance broader and more effective. The CPSU and the Soviet Government also sincerely seek improved and developed relations with all the socialist countries. Mutual goodwill, respect for one another's legitimate interests, common concern for the interests of socialism and peace should prompt the correct solutions in cases where, due to various reasons, the required confidence and mutual understanding are still lacking.

The socialist community is today the main bulwark of anti-imperialism. The Soviet Union and the other socialist countries are actively promoting peace and resolutely opposing the threat of a new war. They are thus making the decisive contribution to saving mankind from the threat of a nuclear catastrophe, and to the establishment of conditions conducive to social progress. An influential role in European and world affairs is played by the Warsaw Treaty Organisation, the defensive military-political alliance of socialist countries, and primarily by its Political Consultative Committee (PCC), in the deliberations of which the toplevel party and state leaders of the fraternal countries participate. It was the PCC that initiated the idea of convening the European Conference in Helsinki, and subsequently put forward a number of new proposals aimed at promoting peace and international security. In January 1983, the PCC proposed the conclusion of a Treaty on Mutual Non-Use of Military Force and the Maintenance of Relations of Peace between the Warsaw 300 Treaty participants and the Nato countries. Faithfully serving the cause of peace, the Warsaw Treaty Organisation has at its disposal everything that is required for reliably defending the socialist gains of the peoples. The socialist countries actively support the integral programme for eliminating all weapons of mass destruction by the year 2000, put forward by the 27th Congress of the CPSU.

The socialist community advocates the strengthening of solidarity with the world communist, workers' and national liberation movements. While rejecting the export of revolution, it is also resolutely opposed to the export of counter-revolution. The Soviet Union and the other fraternal socialist countries are the most reliable allies of the newly-independent states in their struggle for genuine independence and social progress.

The world socialist community, united by MarxismLeninism and socialist internationalism, is in the vanguard of social progress; it is the most dynamic economic and political force, and the bulwark of peace and security of nations.

[301] __ALPHA_LVL0__ The End. [END] ~ [302]

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