Novosti Press Agency Publishing House Moscow 1985
__SUBTITLE__ EvidenceContents
Introduction
Chapter I.
THE RADIO CENTRES OF SUBVERSIVE PROPAGANDA---THE VESTIGES OF THE COLD WAR 11
A mythical "Red menace". US National Committee for a Free Europe. ``White'', ``grey'' and ``black'' propaganda. Authoritative testimony. Orchestrator of the psychological warfare.
Chapter II.
Chapter III.
Chapter IV.
THE POLITICAL BASIS OF THE WEST'S INTERNATIONAL BROADCASTING 35
A "crusade against communism" and "Project Democracy". Secret directives. Misinformation at top level. Secret Directive 75 urging continuous pressure on political life in the USSR. Lies and misinformation, tools of psychological warfare.
MODERN WESTERN RADIO
PROPAGANDA, A TOOL OF
AGGRESSION 46
Radio's "strategic role". Personnel shakeups to bring broadcasting up to date. "Our only means to erode the Soviet system...''
THE AIMS AND METHODS OF WESTERN RADIO PROPAGANDA 62
Chapter principles and actual deeds. The causes of "serious anomalies". Alleged onthe-spot reports. Revealing facts.
[4]RADIO SHOULD SERVE PEACE AND UNDERSTANDING AMONG NATIONS
151Chapter V. THE ROLE OF RADIO STATIONS IN THE
WEST'S SUBVERSIVE ACTIVITY AGAINST SOCIALIST COUNTRIES 73
From the Czechoslovak to the Polish events. The role of the US government not to be revealed or admitted. Foreign currency for ``Solidarity''. Diplomats on spying missions. Reports on "fierce street fighting''.
Chapter VI. US AND NATO SPECIAL SERVICES
BEHIND THE SCREEN OF
BROADCASTING 90
``Studio work" and "field activity". Allotment of the radio waves. Schoolchildren "among the contributors". Senator Fulbright's testimony. An espionage report.
Chapter VII. THE RADIO CENTRES OF THE WEST
IN NATO'S MILITARIST PLANS 106
The US Single Integrated Operational Plan and NATO's Northag Defence Plan. The role of the radio stations during the implementation of these plans. Valuable elements of intelligence data. Instructions for the RFE/RL chief of security.
Chapter VIII. WHO MAKES SUBVERSIVE
PROPAGANDA AGAINST THE USSR AND EAST EUROPEAN COUNTRIES? 117
What the Senate didn't know about Charles Z. Wick. Behind-the-scenes facts in the life of the RFE/RL centre. Prompted by pangs of consciousness.
Chapter IX. THE ILLEGAL NATURE OF WESTERN
RADIO PROPAGANDA
An international convention to outlaw subversive radio propaganda. RFE/RL activity in the light of international law. Those who bear the legal responsibility for this activity. Western lawyers on subversive radio broadcasts. Radio broadcasting in the context of the UN Charter, bilateral agreements and the Helsinki Final Act.
[5]Chapter X.
Why the Voice of America resumed its broadcasts to Western Europe. The concept of a free flow of information. Banning war propaganda and the free propagation of information. Is East-West cooperation in radio broadcasting possible?
Notes, Bibliography
158 [6] __ALPHA_LVL1__ IntroductionToday radio broadcasting has become very important worldwide. Every day millions of people on every continent tune in their radio sets to find out what is going on in the world today and what mankind is to expect tomorrow. The radio is the first to bring news of political crises and economic upheavals and to convey people's concern for the future of the world. It is the first to tell people about scientific achievements, cultural events and sports records. The world's hopes and sense of anger, its joy and pain can be perceived by every radio listener, determining his or her attitude to what is going on in the world. That is why an enormous responsibility must be placed on radio stations for their programmes.
There are radio stations all over the world, which act as a country's visiting card on the air. These are the BBC or Sveriges Radio AB in the north of Europe; Radio Vatican or Radio Monte Carlo in the south; the Voice of America or Radio Canada International in the west; and Radio Moscow or Radio Beijing in the east. And no matter where a citizen of one or another country happens to be, no matter where his private interests or official duties take him, he always tries to pick up the call signs of his country's radio so as to keep in 7 __RUNNING_HEADER__ Psychological Warfare touch with his people and share their joys and sorrows.
British businessman George Nicholson once described his wartime experience at Dunkirk. The British soldiers, he recalled, were lying in the sands, afraid to move. The guns were roaring everywhere, shells whistling and bursting. It seemed as though the entire earth had sunk into the dreadful hell of war. The soldiers did not have the strength to raise their heads and go into the attack. Then suddenly they heard on the radio the chimes of Big Ben and the familiar BBC call signs. England was alive! England was fighting! The Nazis and the roar of the guns no longer seemed so terrible and the British soldiers were fully determined to charge the enemy. The participants in the French Resistance and fearless Maquis felt exactly the same way when they picked up the Free French call signs, as did the partisans in Byelorussia and the Ukraine while listening to Sovinformburo reports.
Radio broadcasts, including those beamed at foreign countries, can really serve the noble goals of,human communication, cultural enrichment, knowledge and, of course, entertaining their listeners. Today radio remains the quickest, most widespread and accessible instrument for disseminating information. According to data from UNESCO, about 80 countries use radio broadcasts in the interests of maintaining peace and goodneighbourly relations, respecting the laws and way of thinking of foreign radio listeners and playing the role of an essential means of cultural exhange, information and education.
The present book deals with a particular sphere of Western radio---propaganda broadcasts beamed abroad, as well as with the mechanism of propaganda institutions and the guidelines the latter follow in preparing radio programmes for transmission to other countries. Much attention is also given to those in the West who have been and continue to be fundamentally responsible for political propaganda aimed at other countries, to those who determine the content of 8 __RUNNING_HEADER_LEFT__ Aggressive Broadcasting broadcasts today and who are responsible for their consequences.
It is the ruling circles in the Western countries who really determine the ideological and political line of programmes broadcast to other countries. It is their fault that, instead of serving as a means of international communication, a channel for disseminating objective information and a rostrum for cultural exchange, these transmissions have become an instrument of exerting political and ideological pressure on citizens in other countries, a weapon of misinformation and political subversion and a platform from which doubtful values of mass culture are forced upon listeners abroad. It is precisely in the sphere of radio transmissions abroad that Western governments should show restraint and respect for listeners and abandon any attempts to interfere in the internal affairs, social system and the operation of the bodies of power of other members of the international community.
The entire course of history shows that Western radio broadcasts beamed at foreign countries have gradually turned from a means of international communication into that pf sowing international discord and whipping up tension. Over the last few decades this tendency has developed with increasing rapidity. After commencing with occasional subversive broadcasts in the 1930s and 1940s, Western radio stations then began to carry out systematic psychological subversion during the cold war period, and from the mass brainwashing of listeners abroad they have now embarked on a radio war, launching direct acts of aggression on the air. For example, American Congressman Edward Derwinski directly stated that "unbeknown to most Americans, we /the Americans/ are involved in an international radio war"^^1^^. Charles Z. Wick, Director of the United States Information Agency (USIA), once noted: "We are at war with the Soviets, whether de facto or declared.''^^2^^ When asked to clarify his statement, Wick stated that he had meant a war of ideas. It appears from these statements 9 that for some time now the United States has equated radio broadcasting to other countries with a radio war. It is noteworthy that the West has attempted to accuse the Soviet Union of escalating the "radio war" and incite it to indulge in aggressive broadcasts. However, the evidence and facts available clearly show that imperialism is waging the radio war unilaterally. Indeed, the USSR devotes considerable attention to broadcasting to other countries but, being aware of its responsibility for maintaining a positive climate in international relations, it has never resorted to radio warfare.
The Soviet people understand very well that the international political climate, mutual trust between nations and countries and hence the future of the world largely depend on what information is disseminated by radio and the ways in which it is done. There is no room for a war of words. There is a need for an open and honest dialogue on a global scale.
The involvement of the special secret services was a critical stage in the evolution of Western radio broadcasts beamed to other countries. To date this process has been completed with the establishment pf intelligence-gathering propaganda centres on the basis of radio stations. With this in mind, the present book devotes special attention to the study of the subversive activities conducted by special services in the, NATO countries under the guise of radio broadcasts and exposes the aims and mechanism of their interaction with the agencies of propaganda for dissemination abroad.
An attempt has also been made to show the reader the moral make-up of the modern ``knights'' of the radio war, their creed and essence. As presented by certain Western circles, these people personify the best ideals of Western society and act as the bearers of worthy moral values. But let the reader not be surprised at the shocking degradation of the mercenaries in this radio war: as a rule, shady characters are easily found to engage in a dubious undertaking.
10The present authors have made extensive use of reference material: books, newspapers and journals published in the West, treatises by Soviet experts on the problems of Western radio broadcasting, relevant works recently published in the socialist countries, as well as material supplied by TASS and Novosti Press Agency. We are grateful to those Soviet and foreign journalists who have been so kind as to make their documents and dossiers available for our use.
[11] __NUMERIC_LVL1__ Chapter I __ALPHA_LVL1__ The Radio Centres ofThe Second World War brought about radical changes in the world. The colonial empires began to disintegrate and fundamental socio-economic reforms were implemented in the countries of Eastern Europe. As a result of the defeat of Nazi Germany, the correlation of forces changed both in Europe and all over the world. Having suffered less than the other major participants in the war, the USA markedly outstripped them economically. In these conditions the US ruling circles thought that the way towards world domination was open to them.
They considered that the main obstacle to their goal was the USSR's military and economic might, its prestige and influence, which had grown during the war. Moreover, during the joint struggle against Nazi Germany, many Americans began to sympathize with the USSR and its people. Unless these sentiments were eradicated from the minds of the American people, it was impossible for the US ruling circles to pursue a policy of attaining world domination. Consequently, the right-wing circles launched an extensive anti-Soviet campaign in the United States, scaring the people with the muthical "Red menace". A wave of McCarthyism---an extreme right-wing anti-communist movement---swept across the country. On the international scene, the USA embarked on a policy of "rolling back" communism and began to resort to blackmail and threats. This policy marked the beginning of the cold war period.
At the same time the majority of the American people 12 believed that humanity was entering an era of goodwill and peace. It seemed that the internal reaction had lost ground. For example, Texas Democrat Martin Dies, chairman of the House Committee on Un-American Activities, declined to run for reelection in November 1944, and three other members of the same Committee were defeated in the same election. It was generally expected that this notorious Committee would be retired, but by January 1945 it was made permanent by the US Congress and continued its witch-hunt with even greater zeal. The hunt was led by John Rankin, a Democrat from Mississippi.
``Saboteurs", "espionage agents" and "Communist renegades" were being tracked down. Even ``experts'' on Soviet affairs were being persecuted. The Committee's mentality can well be illustrated by an exchange, reported in the press, between Rankin and William C. Bullitt, former US Ambassador to the Soviet Union:
Rankin: Is it true that they eat human bodies in Russia?
Bullitt: I did see a picture of a skeleton of a child eaten by its parents.
Rankin: Then they're just human slaves in Russia? Bullitt: There are more human slaves in Russia than ever existed anywhere in the world.^^1^^
In April 1945 Winston Churchill called upon the AngloAmerican armies to act as world policemen. In August the same year he re-introduced the term "iron curtain" in Western political terminology. According to the London Times, this term was initially brought into use by Schwerin von Krosigk, Hitler's Minister of Finance. It was also often used by Joseph Gobbels. In the same speech Churchill called for the use of atomic weapons in the struggle against "flaming ideologies". Thus, while stifl at war with the common enemy, Nazism, the Anglo-American allies launched a cold war against the USSR. On February 10, 1946, Churchill, while spending a vacation in Florida, flew to Washington to confer with President Truman about a speech he was to give at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri.
Truman accompanied Churchill to Fulton, where the retired British Prime Minister, who still wielded a great deal of influence in the Western world, called for a struggle against Red Russia. On September 30, 1946, FBI Director Edgar Hoover issued a statement which alleged that infiltration by Communists was growing in the United States and that "they were at work at every level arid in every organization"^^2^^. 13 Throughout the winter of 1946-1947 the Truman Administration drew the nation's attention to the alleged "Soviet threat". On March 12, 1947, Truman made public his Doctrine which was regarded by some as the commencement of the era of US imperialism under the banners of the cold war. The Doctrine implied that the United States, under the pretext of aiding Greece and Turkey, was to involve itself in their domestic affairs and use their territories as a military-strategic bridgehead against the USSR and other socialist countries. The Doctrine was directed not only against the USSR, which posed no military threat to the United States, but also against the peoples of other countries who were seeking to replace their by now discredited political regimes and "who were increasingly looking eastward, to socialism, for alternatives"^^3^^.
Eleven days after the Doctrine had been enunciated, Truman issued Executive Order 9835, the so-called Loyalty Order, placing under police surveillance more than two million federal employees. Subsequently, this Order was extended to include the entire American population. In his weekly In Fact, George Seldes wrote:
``There is fear in Washington, not only among government employees, but among the few remaining liberals and Democrats who have hoped to salvage something of the New Deal." (Reference to the measures taken by the Roosevelt Administration in the 1933-1938 period for the purpose of negating the consequences of the 1929-1933 crisis and alleviating the contradictions in the US socio-political and economic system.) "... There is fear in Hollywood. ... There is fear in the book publishing houses. There is fear among writers, scientists, school teachers, liberals; among all who are not now part of the reactionary movement...''^^4^^
In 1947 Abraham L. Pomerantz, deputy chief counsel to the US prosecution staff at the Nuremberg trials, wrote in the magazine Protestant:
``The approach, copied from the Nazis, works this way: The press and radio first lay down a terrific barrage against the Red Menace. Headlines without a shread of substance shriek of atom bomb spies, or plots to overthrow our government, of espionage, of high treason, and of other blood-curdling crimes. We are now ready for the second stage: the pinning of the label `Red' indiscriminately on all opposition.''^^5^^
To ensure that position-of-strength policy based on the doctrine of "rolling back communism" and balancing on the brink of war would be pursued, the machinery of state had to be rebuilt to a certain extent. Psychological warfare became
14the most essential element in stepping up tension. For its conduct new agencies were set up which combined intelligence and propaganda operations. In 1946 the US radio broadcasting station RIAS (Radio in the American Sector) started its transmissions to East Germany from West Berlin. In 1947 the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was set up in place of the abolished Office of Strategic Services, the principal US intelligence agency during the Second World War. The CIA concentrated its attention on conducting clandestine subversive operations against the USSR and countries of Eastern Europe. The Office of War Information, the basic foreign propaganda agency, was replaced by the Office of International Information and Cultural Affairs in the Deparment of State. In the same year the Voice of America radio station began its broadcasts in the Russian language.
In the spring of 1948 the US Congress passed the SmithMundt Act, which provided the "statutory basis for a permanent foreign information programme, the basic legislation which to this day underlies the operations of the US Information Agency"^^6^^ created later.
In 1949 the National Committee for a Free Europe was set up under the auspices of the US special services, and it had a small radio station Radio Free Europe (RFE). Two years later the American Committee for Liberation from Bolshevism was founded which had its own radio station, initially called Radio Liberation and then Radio Liberty (RL). More radio stations emerged later on, such as Free Asia and Baikal. These radio stations were alleged to represent anti-socialist opposition organizations or would-be anti-Soviet underground groups. To date, with the exception of RIAS, Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty, all of them have ceased to exist.
The National Committee for a Free Europe was registered in the state of New York on June 2, 1949, as a non-government organization. The idea of creating such an organization for the conduct of a propaganda war against the countries of Eastern Europe was first publicly expressed by the principal designer of the doctrine of containing communism, former US Ambassador to the Soviet Union, George Kennan. According to Robert Holt and Allan Michie, former RFE Deputy Director, both of whom have made a thorough study of the initial period of the cold war and the activities of the RFE, Kennan took note of the fact that a large number of displaced persons from the countries of Eastern Europe had settled down in the United States. Among them were many political leaders who had discredited themselves by cooperating with the Nazis and 15 those who cherished vain hopes for destroying the populardemocratic systems in their countries. They pestered governmental institutions with their demands for material and other assistance. Kennan proposed setting up a ``non-government'' organization in which these people could conduct propaganda war against the governments of East European countries. And this was taking place at a time when Washington was maintaining normal diplomatic relations with those governments!
In February 1949, Kennan's idea was transmitted, through his personal friend Joseph Grew, former Ambassador to Japan, to State Secretary Dean Acheson, who instructed Grew to set up the National Committee for a Free Europe. Besides Joseph Grew, the Committee included such influential politicians as DeWitt C. Poole and Frank Altschul.
After the founding of the National Committee for a Free Europe, which was headed by the then CIA Deputy Director, Allen Dulles, the task was to put the voices of exiled leaders on the air, "addressed to their own peoples back in Europe, in their own languages, in the familiar tones"^^7^^.
A radio committee for organizing broadcasts was set up under the National Committee for a Free Europe, and one year later it came on the air as Radio Free Europe. At that time RFE had a small 7.5 kW short-wave transmitter in West Germany. Its programmes were first beamed to Czechoslovakia. Soon it began to send one-and-a-half-hour broadcasts to Poland, Albania, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria. All broadcasts were prepared and taped in New York, then brought to West Germany to be put on the air.
On January 18, 1951, the American Committee for Liberation from Bolshevism was set up in the state of Delaware. Its main initiators were William C. Bullitt and Eugene and Isaac Don Levine, who worked in the US special services. Thus, these services were able to unite members of emigre organizations who had settled down in the USA. In late 1951 Admiral Alan G. Kirk, former Ambassador to the Soviet Union, was appointed Chairman of the American Committee for Liberation from Bolshevism. A year later he was succeeded by Vice-Admiral Leslie C. Stevens.
From October 1954 onwards the Committee was headed by Howland H. Sargeant, who for several years had been Chairman of the Technical Industrial Intelligence Committee. Incidentally, the current President of RFE/RL, James L. Buckley, previously headed the same Committee.
In 1952 the American Committee for Liberation from
Bolshevism set up Radio Liberation from Bolshevism on the
__PARAGRAPH_PAUSE__
16
__CAPTION__
Such mobile radio stations belonging to Radio Free Europe were
positioned close to Czechoslovak borders to spread misinformation.
RFE presented its provocative broadcasts as the "voice of internal
opposition''.
__PARAGRAPH_CONT__
basis of a US military radio station. It began broadcasting on
March 1, 1953. In October 1956 it was renamed Radio
Liberation and in December 1963, Radio Liberty.
Former US President Harry Truman was the first honorary Chairman of the Board of Trustees for Radio Liberation. The board included eminent US businessmen, statesmen, military leaders and heads of mass media agencies, such as Henry V. Poor, Assistant Dean of the Yale College of Law; Howland H. Sargeant, President of the Radio Liberty Committee and former Assistant Secretary of State in the Truman Administration; Whitney N. Seymour, Chairman of the Carnegie Endowment Board and former President of the American Bar Association; John W. Studebaker, former US Commissioner of Education; Reginald T. Townsend, Vice President of the Radio Liberty Committee; Mrs. Oscar Ahlgren, former President of the General Federation of Women's Clubs; John R. Burton, Chairman of the Board of the National Bank of Far Rockaway; J. Peter Grace, President of W. R. Grace & Company; Allen Grover, former Vice President of Time-Life Inc.; and General Alfred M. Gruenther (Ret.), former Allied Commander in Europe (NATO).
17The founders of the Board of Trustees believed that such a membership would help win large public support for Radio Liberation. At the same time, the fact that Radio Liberation and Radio Free Europe were a CIA project was carefully concealed from the American public. The Board of Trustees, formally entitled to wide powers, had in fact a passive role to play, and it was Howland H. Sargeant, with CIA backing, who was the principal figure in decision-making.
That the headquarters of the radio station was situated in New York was something of a historical and political paradox. Many of the station's employees were former Soviet citizens who had committed serious crimes and feared retribution. They therefore wanted to live as far as possible from the borders with Eastern Europe (Munich is only about 80 miles from the German Democratic Republic's border). They felt far more secure under the protection of the US special services, and therefore a department of Radio Liberation was founded in New York.
That was how the US propaganda and intelligencegathering apparatus was taking shape, adopting ``white'' ( government), ``grey'' (private) and ``black'' (covert) methods of propaganda. The last-named was aptly described as " cloakand-dagger propaganda". Similar broadcasts had been transmitted by Gobbels's radio stations. One of them broadcast to Great Britain posing as the BBC, another to the USA, presenting itself as a radio station of local isolationists. Now RFE and RL began to play a similar role...
The creation of RFE and RL made it possible for the United States to deny that it was participating in a psychological warfare against the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe. What could not be broadcast by the Voice of America, the US government radio station, was broadcast by ``private'', `` independent'' radio stations. What this undertaking meant politically was aptly expressed by Lucius Clay, former Military Governor of the US Zone in Germany. He said that in addition to the Voice of America the USA needed another voice, perhaps less moderate and not liable to the requirements of showing the restraint placed on the government.
The private character of the Committee, however, is purely
formal. After all, from the very outset both ``private''
Committees and both ``private'' radio stations were financed
by the state. But this fact was carefully concealed. The
apparent nature of the finances which the stations received was
designed to mislead the American public. The National
Committee for a Free Europe allegedly received subsidies from
__PRINTERS_P_17_COMMENT__
2---928
18
__CAPTION__
The buildings housing the RFE/RL centre in Munich (Federal
Republic of Germany). The aim of the CIA-controlled Radio Free
Europe and Radio Liberty stations is to sow discord among nations,
undermine trust in the USSR and provoke anti-Soviet and
antisocialist action. Their methods are based on misinformation, lies and
slander, and their personnel includes spies and provocateurs.
more than 70 organizations, government establishments and
industrial associations in the United States, including several
major corporations such as the United States Steel
Corporation. Donations were also supplied by private
individuals and even ``schoolchildren''. The Committee for
Liberation from Bolshevism and its radio station were financed
in the same way. This system was called upon, on the one
hand, to conceal the actual source of finance, and, on the
other hand, create the impression that the Committee enjoyed
wide popularity among, and the support of, the American
people.
That RL and RFE were affiliated to the CIA was kept secret for 20 years. The stations' employees were strictly bound to conceal their affiliation to the CIA and upon taking up employment had to sign the following pledge:
``The undersigned has been informed that Radio Free
Europe is a project of the CIA and that the CIA provides funds
[19]
__CAPTION__
Guarding the RFE/RL premises.
__PRINTERS_P_19_COMMENT__
2*
20
for operation of this organization. The undersigned has now
been officially informed. If he divulges this information to a
third party, he becomes liable for a fine and punishment not to
exceed jf 10,000 and 10 years in prison.''^^8^^
The US Administration and heads of the CIA did their utmost to let the American people know as little as possible about the work of the Committees and radio centres. But for several articles occasionally published in the press, no research or even descriptive material about Radio Liberty and Radio Free Europe was published.
At that time the United States openly intended to destroy socialism, planning a counter-revolutionary revolt instigated from the outside at the first stage and an armed intervention later, which was in keeping with the strategic doctrine adopted in the first years of government by the Eisenhower Administration. In his study of this subject Joseph Whelan, a specialist in Soviet affairs, wrote with regard to the countries of Eastern Europe that the purpose of the American Committee for Liberation from Bolshevism and the "radio's main theme will be liberation...''^^9^^
In November 1952 a draft policy statement was prepared which determined the policy of all programmes broadcast. It said that the radio would be centred on "implacable struggle against the Communist dictatorship until its complete destruction...''^^10^^
These principles underlay the content of the radio programmes for a long time at the initial stage. The general policy of "implacable struggle against the Communist dictatorship until its complete destruction" was also incorporated: in the Radio Liberation Memorandum of June 5, 1953; Memorandum 14- 53 of December 10, 1953, and Memorandum 3-54 of January 8, 1954, which replaced the latter. Here is how the aims of Radio Liberation which determined the guidelines of radio programmes were formulated in the Memorandum.
It stated that Radio Liberation was an organ of anticommunist struggle for the peoples of the Soviet Union and served exclusively the cause of liberating these peoples from Bolshevism.
The radio station was called upon to carry on effective and prolonged propaganda and pursue the following objectives:
(a) Convince its listeners in the Soviet Union and Soviet troops stationed abroad that Radio Liberation was their voice, speaking in their interests and in the interests of their country;
(b) In every way possible weaken the strength and expose 21 the propaganda of the Communist dictatorship in the Soviet Union;
(c) Work for a .clearer and more consistent expression of the existing discontent---direct the will of its listeners towards the overthrow of Communist dictatorship;
(d) Instil doubts and discontent among those members of Soviet society who then considered their position satisfactory and supported the existing regime;
(e) In every way possible help discredit MarxismLeninism-Stalinism as the ideological foundation of the Communist regime...^^11^^
There is no need to go into detail in studying the text of the Memorandum. One thing is obvious: its authors were attempting to interfere in the internal affairs of another state and directly instigate the Soviet people to resist the bodies of Soviet power. Yet, to give the reader a full idea of RL's work, let us look at the first item of Section 3 of the Memorandum, outlining the rules to be followed for enhancing the effect of broadcasting. It says, in effect:
1. Bearing in mind the fact that Radio Liberation is to convince its listener that it is a Russian (Azerbaijanian, etc.) radio station, serving his interests and the interests of his people, it must avoid anything that might create the impression that it works in the interests of a foreign power.^^12^^ That was how the instrument of ``black'' (covert) propaganda was put into operation. However, the reader should not take this to mean that Radio Liberty or Radio Free Europe are controlled by emigres from the socialist countries. Joseph Whelan, working at the Congressional Research Service of the Library of Congress, admits that "...RL is clearly a United States Government operation and an integral part of this Nat4on's foreign policy apparatus.''^^13^^
With a view to improving the propaganda machinery, President Truman in 1951 set up at the highest level the Psychological Strategy Board, which included the Deputy Secretary of State, Deputy Secretary of Defense and CIA Director. Later this Board became the Psychological Operations Coordinating Committee. In the same year the Mutual Security Act 165 was passed. It incorporated the Kersten Amendment, stipulating annual allocations to the tune of 100 million dollars from the US budget for financing "any selected persons who are residing in or escapees from the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary... either to form such persons into elements of the military forces 22 supporting the North Atlantic Treaty Organization or for other purposes..." This Act enabled the US special services to make extensive use of emigres for subversive operations against the USSR and other socialist countries.
In organizing subversive propaganda against the USSR and other socialist countries, the US special services, particularly the CIA, tried to gain the support of the various groups of people who fled their countries to the West. "Radio Liberty," wrote Senator J. W. Fulbright, "focused upon the Soviet Union, Radio Free Europe upon the Eastern European satellites. Each radio presented itself as a spontaneous creation, run by freedom-loving refugees financed by dimes from free-world schoolchildren. Secretly, each was the organizational and financial instrument of the CIA, staffed by expatriates who sought the overthrow of Soviet rule.''^^14^^ The magazine Counter-Spy was even more specific in its definition of the employees of these cold war radio stations:
``The CIA smuggled dozens of Eastern European Nazi collaborators into the United States to work for Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty and the Voice of America, as well as the Pentagon. Some of the Nazis brought in were responsible for the killing of thousands of Jews and had been leading Eastern European fascist organizations which collaborated with the Nazis.''^^15^^
People like Yaroslav Stetsko, leader of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), readily rallied under the banner of the cold war raised by the White House. When the Nazis occupied the Ukraine, Stetsko proclaimed a OUN government in Lvov, and after the war he founded the Anti-Bolshevik Alliance of Peoples. Rallying round the banner were also other nationalists who had collaborated with the Nazis, now united into the Alliance of Russian Solidarists, as well as the Yugoslavian, Hungarian and other emigre organizations which linked themselves closely with Western special services. By the mid-1950s all these anti-socialist forces were concentrated around the CIA's propaganda and espionage centres---Radio Liberation and Radio Free Europe.
In an effort to conceal its actual affiliation with the state and its links with the CIA, Radio Liberation beamed its broadcasts on behalf of Russian and other emigres and employed them on the editorial and service staff. The advantages of this approach were given particular emphasis by Director of Radio Liberation Richard Bertrandias in his Memorandum of April 28, 1957, to a member of the American Committee for Liberation from Bolshevism. Bertrandias noted that the idea of 23 cooperation between the emigres and the Americans carried into effect by the American Committee had several advantages over the work of official government radio stations and those which had no emigres on their staffs. He wrote that the RL broadcasts were credible, and the possibility of attaining the highest level of credibility depended on whether RL would be able:
(a) to speak on behalf of the compatriots showing sincere concern for their homeland;
(b) to avoid expressing views identical to those of a foreign (in this case, US) government; and
(c) to pursue a policy not fully coinciding with the foreign policy of any government.
Such ``free'', ``independent'' committees as the American Committee for Liberation from Bolshevism and the National Committee for a Free Europe and their radios opened up a wide field of activity for the US intelligence agencies. The CIA used Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberation as a cover not only for waging psychological war against the East European countries but also for carrying out ``special'' operations.
In 1973 the Presidential Study Commission on International Broadcasting headed by Milton Eisenhower published a report entitled "The Right to Know", stating in particular that "...the cost of the radios cannot be considered separately from our nation's total cost of working for peace and deterring aggression. Over a long period of years, the contribution can obviate military expenditures many times greater than the broadcasting costs. Contrariwise, elimination of the radios could lead over time to increased military costs.''^^16^^
In fact, the situation is altogether different in the United States. Both military expenditure and broadcasting costs are growing very rapidly.
The Washington Post (August 8, 1973) carried an article by Senator William Fulbright, entitled "US Funding of 'Freedom Radio'", which said in particular:
``Two decades later, international conditions---and our own attitudes---had changed dramatically. On both sides, ideology had waned, and power had stabilized. Gone in the process was our belief that we could shape the world, and fading too was our compulsive fear that someone else might. Continuing unabated, however, were the `freedom' broadcasts---which by then had cost unknowing American taxpayers nearly one-half billion dollars...''
Senator Fulbright went on to say that, apart from their
secret financing, these radios "... criticize the domestic life and
24
__CAPTION__
The RFE building in Lisbon, Portugal, is not only headquarters of that
station: it also houses a US intelligence service whose job is to resist
progressive changes in that country.
policies of the Communist countries to which they broadcast...
But seen in context, the paramount question still stands: Is this
interference in Communist societies within the legitimate
range of American foreign policy? In answer, one need only
ask a further question: Which kinds of interference by other
countries in our affairs do we find legitimate?...
``We have, of course, no monopoly on `truth'. But if we wish to tell our story, let us now rely on other tools---on our overseas libraries and information centres, on expanding programmes of cultural and educational exchange, on the informative but unprovocative broadcasts of the Voice of America, on growing trade and tourism... But continuing the 'freedom radio' assault only perpetuates the structure of mutual distrust...''^^17^^
However, it was the line of the Administration that gained the upper hand.
``Neither RFE nor RL, of course, could get a dime from Congress if they were not primarily engaged in trying to win friends and influence people in the Russian orbit at the expense on the Communist governments. However desirable this may have been some years ago, does it, on balance, serve the best interests of the United States...?''^^18^^
In 1973 a Board for International Broadcasting was 25 established. In accordance with Public Law 93-129 passed in 1973, the Board was set up to consider and evaluate the aims and operation of RFE/RL radio corporation (in 1976 RFE and RL merged to form a single corporation) and "to assess the quality, effectiveness and professional integrity of its broadcasting within the context of the broad foreign policy objectives of the United States"^^19^^. The main purpose of the Board was to serve as a cover for RFE/RL, thus making it possible for the Congress to finance them openly (not through the CIA as was previously the case) as well as to pacify the public by presenting these subversive radio stations as a ``new'' organization with ``new'' functions which allegedly had no links with the CIA. The Board was in charge of allocations and acted as go-between for the radio corporation and the US legislative and executive bodies.
On February 23,1942, broadcaster William Hale went up to a large graphite microphone and said, articulating every word distinctly: "The Voice of America speaks. Today America has been at war for seventy-nine days. Daily at this time we shall speak to you about America and the war. The news,may be good or bad. We shall tell you the truth.''^^20^^ Since then the Voice of America has continued to broadcast, turning during the cold war period into an instrument of the US Information Agency of which it has been a component part since the Agency was first founded. By 1946 the Voice of America had 36 transmitters and broadcast in 25 languages.
During the election campaign of 1952 the Republicans' Presidential candidate, Dwight D. Eisenhower, stated that the United States could not "win the struggle for men's minds merely by tripling Congressional appropriations"^^21^^ for international information. When elected, Eisenhower promised in his first State of the Union Message to "make more effective all activities related to international information" because they were "essential to the security of the United States".^^22^^
Immediately after his re-election to the Senate Joseph
McCarthy became chairman of the Permanent Committee on
Investigations of the Senate Committee on Government
Operations. He began to specify the activities of the
International Information Administration (HA), the USIA's
predecessor, and accused it of "pro-Communist tendencies". IIA
Policy Order 5, issued only two weeks after Eisenhower's
coming to power, warned against using the works of liberal
writers. On the instructions of John Foster Dulles, the new
Secretary of State, a new IIA directive was issued with regard
to the Voice of America. The directive ordered that "no material
[26]
__CAPTION__
The antennas of VOA transmitters. This station is an instrument of US
ideological expansion under the widest variety of banners---
conservative, ultra-conservative, ``moderate'', liberal and neo-liberal.
Such a ``plurality'' in propaganda is designed to inspire trust in the
seemingly diverse---but actually identical in message and address---
news reports, discussions and commentaries on events in the United
States and around the world.
27
by any controversial persons, Communists, fellow travellers,
etc., will be used under any circumstances"^^23^^.
A few days before the directive was issued, McCarthy opened his committee's televised hearings on the Voice of America. Charging "gross mismanagement" of the VOA, McCarthy said that it "could not be merely the result of incompetence or stupidity", but must be deliberate and therefore Communist-inspired.
Leonard Erikson, head of the VOA, was a believer in the "hard sell" and argued for a distinction "between broadcasts to Iron Curtain listeners, who have a strong emotional need for a hard-hitting anti-Communist message, and broadcasts to Free World listeners who tend to be hypersensitive to a propagandistic approach"^^24^^. In East European broadcasts, Erikson believed, the primary emphasis had to be on force and directness. It was this persistence on a "hard-hitting antiCommunist message" that for years damaged the credibility of VOA broadcasts as far as Western audiences were concerned. In particular, this fact was mentioned by Thomas Sorensen, a propaganda expert who studied the work of the VOA.
During the same period, on Secretary of State John Dulles's recommendation, the President prepared Congress Reorganization Plan 8 stipulating the establishment of the US Information Agency that would serve as the US Administration's "fourth arm" (psychological---in addition to diplomatic, economic and military). The USIA began its work on August 1, 1953.
By 1954 the USIA had considerably intensified the gathering and analysis of intelligence and set up its own Office of Policy and Research. In 1955 it was incorporated into the Psychological Operations Coordinating Committee set up by the President. Its director was to attend the National Security Council sessions as an observer and met the President once a month.
The USIA waged its psychological war with even greater intensity under the Administrations of Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon. At that time the agency was particularly active in coordinating its efforts with the Department of Psychological Warfare at the Defense Department since the United States was very much tied up with the unpopular war in Vietnam and was regarded throughout the world as an aggressor.
At the height of the cold war the VOA put into operation the world's biggest, 4,800 kW, transmitter in Greenville, North Carolina, doubling the power of its short-wave transmissions.
28Since the time of the cold war VOA broadcasts have been of a definitely propagandist and biased nature. In other words, they have served the aims of psychological warfare. At the same time, in a bid to win its listeners' confidence, the VOA has steadily stressed its objectivity and breadth with regard to news coverage. From a VOA point of view, "it is more important to be credible than truthful"^^25^^. Although truth is not always believed, says US expert Robert Elder, it was used by the VOA, if it was on "our side". In other words, VOA news coverage always reflects United States government policy.^^26^^
The Office of Policy and Research, which has defined and continues to define the VGA's political line, apparently thinks of VOA news in terms of: "Is this in the American interest? If it is, play it up. If not, play it down.''^^27^^
Regarding the ``objectivity'' of VOA broadcasts, researchers and others concerned with US broadcasting stress that VOA strives to be credible rather than objective, holding that what is considered objective depends on the level of the listener's perception.^^28^^ The real political content, of course, can be found in the so-called ``back-half'' of the programme, in the commentary.^^29^^ The VOA has continued English-language broadcasts to many areas of the world, including East European countries, since, in the view of those repsonsible for US propaganda, among them former USIA Director Allen, local-language broadcasts lacked credibility because "listeners knew that the broadcasts were especially prepared for them"^^30^^.
As has been noted by Thomas Sorensen, in the early years of the cpld war the VOA was more interested in polemics than persuasion and its workers were engaged in preparing " hardhitting, anti-Communist" broadcasts^^31^^ because most of the VGA's foreign employees were emigres from Eastern Europe. Later the VOA's employees began to adhere to the formula which had initially been laid down by President Eisenhower: "The Voice of America should ... employ truth as a weapon in support of Free World objectives, but it had no mandate or license to seek evidence of lack of domestic support of America's foreign policies and actions.''^^32^^
Such statements only gave added strength to the objections of many propaganda experts to the use of the VOA as the government's mouthpiece. In late 1960, following heated debates that had been going on for many years, the then USIA Director George Allen signed the so-called Charter of the VOA, which was not approved either by the President or by the US Congress until mid-1976. The Charter briefly formulated the 29 three following principles: 1. VOA news will be accurate, objective and comprehensive; 2. VOA will present a balanced and comprehensive projection of significant American thought and institutions; 3. VOA will present the policies of the United States clearly and effectively.^^33^^
One does not have to be a great authority on propaganda issues to understand that the Charter, though being a compromise, was called upon to encourage those who believed that VOA broadcasts should glorify the United States and help implement US foreign policy. The provisions of the Charter could be used as a cover in any eventuality. It should also be added that the credibility of VOA information and the tone that it adopted were at all times subject to the interest of the policies of the US Administration. As Robert Elder noted:
``The tone of the Voice and its credibility may fluctuate over time, depending upon the nature of the policies of the United States government or the demands placed on the Voice as a policy tool. It was strident and harsh in its handling of Soviet Union and East European affairs ... during the McCarthy era and the peak of the Cold War.''^^34^^
Presidents Kennedy and Johnson "wanted the truth in context; it is no more honest to emphasize the 'blemishes and warts' than it is to pretend they do not exist---and it is certainly not good propaganda.''^^36^^ The USIA director under the Johnson Administration, Carl Rowan, once noted that the best propaganda is the wisest dispensing of the truth.^^36^^
The "best propaganda" disseminated by the VOA has resulted in a wave of criticism in all countries to which it has broadcast and especially, of course, in East European countries, where VOA propaganda has been the most crude. Here are some comments from Newsweek (June 1968) about the VOA broadcasts which had irritated Europeans with their emphasis on the American way of life. "You Americans," wrote one Hungarian listener, "have a tendency in your VOA of indirectly tell ing usthat life inyourcountryandthe ideals of your nation are superior and the best in the world.''
Also damaging to the VOA was the United States' involvement in Vietnam. "The United States is so deeply tied up with the war," wrote another listener, "that we do not believe you can afford to be objective.''^^37^^
VOA executives were constantly complaining that the governments of several countries whose populations were being subjected to massive propaganda were beginning to jam official and unofficial US radio stations. However, in the autumn
30 of 1970 the United States resumed after a five-year period to jam Radio Moscow.The VGA resumed broadcasting on a frequency of 173 kilohertz which had been allocated to Radio Moscow, regenerating the war on the air. The VGA's administrators attempted to justify their actions by a desire to reduce the number of Radio Moscow's listeners abroad. This decision was taken on the instructions of Frank Shakespeare, USIA Director, which meant that the people in some regions in Eastern Europe, who had normally received Radio Moscow broadcasts, could no longer do so. Many specialists believed that the use of a frequency allocated to someone else undermined the world system of frequency allocation.
The aggressive attitude taken by the US ruling circles under the Carter Administration with regard to the USSR and East European countries meant that the VGA was returning to the former position it had adopted during the cold war. Although the USSR had long since stopped jamming the VGA's broadcasts, the latter were so provocative and aggressive that the US Ambassador to the Soviet Union, Malcolm Toon, complained to Washington about them. His complaint, however, was not favourably received by the Carter Administration, and Zbignew Brzezinski, who was the President's National Security Adviser, stated that they intended to ascertain aspects that were most painful for the Soviets.
At the same time, one fact which had been carefully kept secret by the US Administration leaked out. It became known that many former RL and RFE employees, who had soiled themselves by collaborating with the Nazis or committing crimes in their own countries, were working for the Voice of America. This fact refuted the US Administration's allegation that there were no links between the VGA and RFE/RL or between their employees. As President of the American Federation of Government Employees Bruce N. Gregory stated, "Approximately fifty of these former Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty employees are now working at the Voice of America.''^^38^^
``A major task for America's information programme has always been propaganda aimed at the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries through the Voice of America radio and various publications...
``The USIA, in its early years, was an ideological weapon of
the Cold War and was molded by those battles into a
singlemindedly anti-Communist agency. Its propaganda was largely
[31]
__CAPTION__
The transmission of specially-addressed news items and commentaries
to all continents from USIA headquarters in Washington is only one of
the more than 40 of the agency's activities.
32
directed at the Soviet Union and Eastern European
countries.''^^39^^
The USIA stepped up its anti-Soviet and anti-Communist activities especially after the appointment of President Reagan's close friend and associate Charles Z. Wick to the post of USIA Director in 1981. His appointment resulted in a number of important changes in the work of the agency. With every passing day the USIA has been intensifying its subversive anti-Soviet propaganda. Today it is the most important aspect in the work of the main agency of psychological warfare. The USIA has more than 9,300 employees and implements 44 different propaganda programmes in 129 countries through its 214 information centres and 135 libraries.
Wick has managed to obtain large funds for his agency. In 1985, the agency received 796.4 million dollars for its activities, and a further 888 million will be allocated to it in 1986. The new Director has fully brought the USIA back to the days of the cold war. As has been noted by a veteran US information officer, "the attitude of everyone in the agency is, 'Here we go again'... 'It's back to Truman and America First and all the cold-war rhetoric'.''^^40^^
As mentioned earlier, back in 1981 Charles Wick startled a private foreign-policy group in Washington by announcing, "We are at war /with the Soviets/, whether de facto or declared." Remarked one member of the audience, Patricia Kutzner, executive director of the World Hunger Education Service, "It is as if he had entered a time capsule in the 1950s and just emerged.''^^41^^
In order to ensure the implementation of this cold war policy, Wick has effected a shake-up of the USIA and VOA, getting rid of employees who, in his view, were insufficiently aggressive and offensive. Eugene Rosenfeld, a former USIA staffer, once told a US magazine correspondent: "Politicization is nothing new in the US government. But Wick has brought it to a peak at USIA. There are 10 times more political appointees in the agency today than normal.''^^42^^ All the important posts are being filled by new people with extremely conservative views. Wick has already removed 60 individuals from high positions and dismissed his three deputies. In May 1985, President Reagan announced the appointment of Marvin L. Stone, former editor of the U.S. News & World Report, noted for his extremely conservative views, to the post of USIA Deputy Director.
Another Western radio station which is active in the psychological war against the USSR and Eastern European 33 countries is the British Broadcasting Corporation. BBC DirectorGeneral Sir Hugh Greene, a great authority on subversive propaganda, was at the height of the cold war responsible for broadcasting to East European countries. The BBC worked undisguisedly and persistently interfered in the internal affairs of those countries, apparently relying on its image as a champion of democracy. The aggressive nature of the BBC broadcasts was also due to the mistaken belief held by the apologists of psychological warfare that the populations in East European countries were discontented with their social system and striving to restore the old form of government.
While RFE and RL openly called for an armed revolt, riots and sabotage, the BBC acted more subtly, but still resorting to ``grey'' and ``black'' propaganda. It cautiously prompted the directions of activity and the content of slogans used, and raised the potential rebels' hopes for Western aid in case they had to take up resolute action. As Brigadier-General C. N. Burcly stressed, there was no difference between the extreme forms of propaganda and the light forms of subversion.^^43^^
The BBC, or to be more precise, those circles which determine its political line, held a negative attitude towards detente. They were especially active in opposing the drift towards the improvement in Soviet-American relations in the 1970s. Alongside attempts to discredit the Soviet economy, the BBC launched an attack on the ideological foundations of the socialist system, reducing all reasoning to one formula: "Democracy and socialism are incompatible." After the Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe the BBC launched an assault on the signed agreements and energetically joined the human rights propaganda campaign conducted by the US propaganda radio stations. The opponents of detente coordinated the efforts of the main Western radio stations along NATO lines. For example, during one week in January 1977 they broadcast to East European countries 120 programmes which grossly distorted the actual state of affairs in those countries.
With every passing year anti-commuriist broadcasts by the BBC are becoming more and more like those of RFE/RL. The BBC avoids advertising its contacts with the Foreign Office, playing the role of an independent organization concerned with disseminating information abroad. In reality the foreign services of the BBC are under the constant control of the Foreign Office. "The Foreign Office has primary responsibility for foreign publicity," writes L. John Martin, "and its __PRINTERS_P_33_COMMENT__ 3---928 34 information policy department works with the various regional offices to formulate policy and overseas information.''^^44^^ The BBC is very much one of the basic tools in the implementation of British foreign policy.
The British government has the right to exercise absolute control over the activities of the BBG through the Home and Foreign Offices.^^45^^
In the 1980s the political situation in the world has been marked by the continuing conversion of propaganda, especially radio propaganda, into an important element in the policy of the United States and other NATO countries and the extreme ``ideologization'' of the present-day policy of the United States, acting as the conductor of the psychological war against the USSR and other socialist countries. Let us now make a detailed examination of the present state of affairs.
[35] __NUMERIC_LVL1__ Chapter II __ALPHA_LVL1__ The Political Basis ofSpeaking in the British Parliament on June 8,1982, the US President, Ronald Reagan, officially announced a crusade against communism---"the march of freedom and democracy which will leave Marxism-Leninism on the ash heap of history".^^1^^ Some Western political leaders with their characteristic passion for exaggeration, assessed Ronald Reagan's speech as the most important presidential statement since the Second World War.
Presenting himself to Western Europe as the ideological leader of the capitalist world, as Winston Churchill was during the initial period of the cold war, Ronald Reagan called upon the West "to foster the infrastructure of democracy"^^2^^ within the framework of the crusade, i.e., promote the establishment and development of press, labour unions, political parties, scientific and cultural centres loyal to the United States. In other words, he claimed the right to global interference in the internal affairs of other states by putting forward a programme in which the United States could achieve its imperial ambitions and objectives. The crusade has been launched along four main directions: development of information services abroad, "Public Diplomacy", "Project Democracy" and "Democracy Programme".^^3^^
Besides interference in the internal affairs of the socialist countries, the new initiative was definitely aimed at fostering pro-American democracy in the Third World through the open 36 financing of political parties, labour unions and newspapers. Officials involved in the project said it was intended to place political aid to developing countries on the same level as military and economic aid.^^4^^ Bernard Gwertzman, a New York Times correspondent, naively believes or deliberately asserts that "until now, American financing of democratic forces abroad has been small, except for AFL-ClO assistance to labour unions. The Central Intelligence Agency has provided covert aid to political parties and newspapers.''^^5^^
Concerning Project Democracy, the West German magazine Der Spiegel wrote in April 1983: "In February the Reagan Administration started implementing Project Democracy, the execution of which will require 85 million dollars over the next two years. This money will be expended on indoctrinating future political leaders now studying at American universities, and establishing pro-American labour unions and parties in countries where they do not exist as yet. This means Third World countries and communist states...''^^6^^
In order to find ways to impose ``democratic'', i.e., proWestern, development on communist countries, the US Department of State convened in Washington in the autumn of 1982 a conference to which about 50 experts, government and CIA officials, journalists and emigres were invited. For example, present at the conference were Melvin Lasky, editor-- inchief of the CIA-financed magazine Monat, dissidents Vladimir Bukovsky and Jiri Pelikan. The task of executing Project Democracy has fallen to the USIA.
Marie-France Toinet, a researcher for the French fondation nation ale des sciences politiques and director of research at the Paris-1 radio station wrote that anyone reading the document Project Democracy must be tempted to ask whether its objective is to prove the superiority of the American model over all others---communist and non-communist.^^7^^ To this question The Washington Times replied curtly that the American democracy can serve as a model for setting up and strengthening democratic institutions.
In March 1977 the French magazine Le Monde Diplomatique published an article by Maurice T. Maschino devoted to the study of the relationship between the concepts of capitalism and democracy. This article was based on the research carried out by a group of sociologists, historians, economists and lawyers. It said in part: "The power won in the name of freedom uses the same freedom in order to impose its dictatorship on the people. Great principles are trampled underfoot as soon as they are proclaimed.''
37``Well-intentioned principles have been proclaimed," declared lawyer Jean Cosson, "they were written down in constitutions and, of course, ignored; beyond any doubt the rights of capital prevailed over the rights of citizens; in reality the nations were ruled by the wealthiest people... Capitalism did not promote the execution of social democracy: nor did it establish an economic democracy... Capitalism no longer needs democracy.''^^8^^
While announcing the programme of "fostering the infrastructure of democracy", the United States is using it as a cover to lay the legal foundations for covert and overt interference in the internal affairs of other states, to split, disintegrate, reshape and reorientate political, public, labour, youth and religious organizations and even the system of education, primarily in countries which have chosen to develop independently of the United States.
As regards the psychological methods of influencing the population in those countries, a method of direct suggestion is being applied.
In accordance with Project Democracy, the USIA tries "to convey a more accurate picture of the character and values of the United States" through scholarships, American studies institutions, English teaching and book programmes.^^9^^
The implementation of Project Democracy also provides for influencing the present and future leadership in the East European and developing countries. In particular, this job is being done by methods of propaganda which advertize the viability of NATO, the values of Western democracy and the most important areas in the political, scientific, social and cultural development of the United States. According to Project Democracy, the USIA has begun to devote a great deal of attention to gathering relevant information about the leaders of various countries and their probable successors.
The fourth element in Reagan's strategy is Democracy Programme, which is more specific. When the government machinery regarding issues of Public Diplomacy was in the making, the Special Planning Group under the Chairmanship of the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs put forward a proposal on setting up a semi-official National Endowment for Democracy. There are many funds in the United States. Why was another one needed?
The bill on the National Endowment for Democracy, Sec. 402(a), reads: "The Congress finds that there has been established in the District of Columbia a private, nonprofit corporation known as the National Endowment for 38 Democracy... which is not an agency or establishment of the United States Government.''^^10^^
The Reagan Administration and Congress believed that the establishment of a non-government, semi-official fund could solve the problem of aiding political parties abroad without causing them any harm in the process. In their view, there are few respectable foreign parties which can openly receive small sums from the US Administration, while an independent fund subsidized by private persons and the state could be acceptable.
Commenting on the Democracy Programme, Christopher Hitchens asked in The Washington Post: "Is the Reagan Administration as confident about `democracy' as it claims?"11 And what exactly is democracy to Reagan?
Partly, Ronald Reagan gave a very revealing answer to this question at a press conference on May' 14, 1984. The President was asked: "...Senator Helms has said that the United States bought the election in El Salvador. Could you tell us, please, exactly what was the financial involvement of the CIA and other Government agencies?''
The President answered: "I don't think that there was any attempt by any agency of the United States Government to participate in a partisan fashion in that election. There has been overtly, not covertly, aid given to labour unions, to trade associations, within the very framework of the programme that I announced before the British Parliament a couple of years ago, and that is the idea of trying to help democracy by strengthening those organizations within a country that lead toward democracy...''^^12^^ According to Reagan, it appears that democracy means giving aid overtly (through the Democracy Programme), rather than covertly (through the CIA).
Professor Stanley Hoffmann, Chairman of the Centre for European Studies at Harvard University, believes that "if the United States wants to propagate democracy, it should do it by example..." But what example is the United States giving today?^^13^^
US analysts concerned with the study of the Soviet Union and American-Soviet relations think that the United States and world peace are threatened in the 1980s by an American political disease, Sovietophobia, which "endangers democratic values, distorts budgetary priorities and threatens national security by enhancing the prospect of nuclear war".^^14^^
During a short period in the 1960s and early 1970s Sovietophobia was declining due to the positive influence of detente and to illusions harboured by influential circles in the 39 United States that the transition from confrontation to . cooperation with the USSR would automatically lead to a weakening in the national-liberation struggle and a fall in the political activity of the working-class movement, which in reality is historically inevitable and not controlled by the Soviet Union.
At the same time, expressing extreme right-wing views and wishing to substantiate the record-high level of military expenditure ideologically, the new US Administration has launched an unprecedentedly fierce psychological war against the countries of Eastern Europe. This war is the result of the violent reaction of the right-wing conservative ruling circles in the United States to the steady weakening of US positions in the world and the rapid disintegration of the US empire.
Indeed, the US economic and political hegemony of the first postwar decades has been undoubtedly and irretrievably undermined. The main economic centres of the Western world---the USA, Western Europe and Japan---have become fierce competitors. That is why the general strategy of the present Administration in Washington is aimed at attempting to restore US positions in the modern world.
The dangerous and reckless striving to attain superiority over the Soviet Union in the field of nuclear arms and space weapons as the basis for restoring the world political and economic supremacy of the United States is one of the most important elements of Reagan's foreign policy. It is also aimed at destroying the world socialist system and returning the developing countries, if not to the old colonial status, then at least to greater economic and political dependence.
The current wave of the US propaganda offensive, based on the myth of the "Soviet military threat", pursues the following main objective: by whipping up chauvinism, creating an atmosphere of war hysteria and one of a "besieged camp" at home, to resurrect the spirit of McCarthyism, making it impossible for the public to express their discontent. This will then ensure a new round in the arms race.
Faced with the strategic tasks of regrouping and strengthening the positions of US business, mainly of the military-industrial complex, both at home and abroad, the Reagan Administration has begun to play more on ideological motifs and started a psychological war against states whose political forms of goverment it dislikes, especially the USSR and the other countries of Eastern Europe.
In particular, in his secret Directive 75 issued in early 1983, President Reagan instructed his Administration to exert a steady influence on the internal political life in the USSR. The 40 Directive was drawn up by Richard Edgar Pipes, Professor of History at Harvard University, who was born in Poland. A strong opponent of detente. Pipes was until recently on the National Security Council under the Reagan Administration as an expert on Eastern Europe.^^15^^ The Directive stipulates, on the one hand, a firm, realistic and US security-oriented economic policy with regard to the USSR and, on the other hand, a growth in subversive propaganda and the expansion of Public Diplomacy.
The document is virtually a direct continuation of National Security Decision Document 68 which laid down the foundations for the cold war and envisaged drawing the USSR into the arms race, wearing it out economically and stepping up clandestine activities and psychological warfare.
On January 14, 1983, Ronald Reagan signed another secret Directive---National Security Decision Document 77--- on the establishment of a Special Planning Group under the Chairmanship of the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs. The Group included the Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense, Director of the USIA, Administrator of the Agency for International Development, Director of the White House Communications Office, and other officials.
The new propaganda agency consists of four committees: the International Political Committee headed by Lawrence S. Eagleburger, Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs; the International Information Committee headed by Gilbert Robinson, then Deputy Director of the US Information Agency; the International Broadcasting Committee headed by Robert B. McFarlane, then Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs; and the Public Affairs Committee under the joint leadership of Robert McFarlane and David Gergen, Director of the White House Communications Office.
The Group's basic task is to improve the general coordination of efforts in the field of information with the intention of opposing the USSR's peace offensive and to work out recommendations for neutralizing through propaganda such problems as the movement for freezing nuclear arms in Western Europe and the USA. This document gives the Administration in Washington freedom to carry out psychological and clandestine propaganda operations abroad and on US territory.
The ideologization of US foreign policy and the strengthening of the apparatus of psychological warfare abroad are being stepped up by the United States. In 1983 Ronald Reagan signed Directive 84 making it binding on the federal employees to take a lie-detector test and an oath not to 41 divulge any occupational and state secrets and providing for the perpetual censorship of the texts of statements and publications of federal employees having access to classified information. Former VOA Director John Chancellor described this action as "the most sweeping and dictatorial censorship directive in the history of the American government".^^16^^
Three years have passed since Ronald Reagan announced a ``crusade'' against the USSR. Perhaps the Administration in Washington has introduced some amendments to its policy? The answer is yes, new elements have been introduced. Today Washington combines an openly militaristic position-- ofstrength policy with demagogic assertions that it is ready to improve its relations with the USSR. But such statements by the US Administration run counter to practical experience. First one, then another member of the Administration calls for stepping up the ideological offensive against the Soviet Union, arousing hatred and suspicion towards the Soviet people and deliberately complicating the improvement of relations and mutual understanding between the USSR and the USA.
Increasingly sophisticated means are being used in the psychological war against the USSR, and the special secret services are playing an extensive role. As the ideological function of the American state (formulation of the aims and methods in implementing US foreign policy) grows in significance, the specific weight and influence of the propaganda bodies in the execution of foreign-policy objectives is increasing accordingly. What Charles Wick does as USIA Director is fully in keeping with Reagan's efforts to politicize and ideqlogize US foreign policy within the framework of his ``crusade''. The US Administration's intention to "foster the infrastructure of democracy", proclaimed by Ronald Reagan in his speech in the British Parliament, has become one of USIA's main concerns since 1983. But even before that, i.e., in 1981, Charles Wick made a proposal to the President that aggressive US propaganda abroad should be intensified as a challenge to the Soviet Union and "Marxist societies" in general. The socalled Project Truth proposed by Wick and later endorsed by the National Security Council formed the backbone of the "total ideological war" started by the Reagan Administration after the example of this kind of war in the 1950s and early 1960s.
According to Wick, Project Truth has been necessitated by the fact that the United States has ignored the USSR's " propaganda offensive" for too long, thereby putting itself in an unfavourable light in the eyes of the rest of the world. By using 42 propaganda tricks, Washington has attempted to lay the blame for the low popularity of its aggressive position-of-strength policy on the Soviet Union, with the allegation that the latter gives the world public a distorted picture of US foreign-policy objectives and actions.
The New York Times noted that, according to USIA officials. Project Truth is designed quickly to provide its foreign departments with counter-propaganda at times when there are rumours and news reports about US activities, which are to be presented as false.
One of the direct objectives of Project Truth is to stop the frustration by the public of the aims of the NATO alliance, especially in Europe.
In order to help US propaganda convince the Europeans of the need to deploy US medium-range missiles on their territory and find arguments for the struggle against West European pacifists, Wick toured several West European capitals. He talked to statesmen, primarily foreign ministers and heads of propaganda departments, and persuaded them that there was a need to step up anti-Soviet propaganda and implement Project Truth on a broad scale.
As part of the project, the USIA sums up and analyses the trends of Soviet information activities abroad, and if Soviet information does not agree with US foreign-policy objectives, USIA conclusions, headed ``misinformation'', are disseminated through all USIA channels, including the Voice of America. The USIA has set up a special information service, which lays particular stress on positive information in its reports about the United States abroad. In order to ascertain the tendencies in the development of public opinion abroad, the agency uses the services of an archconservative organization headed by the editor of the Commentary magazine Norman Podhoretz. The USIA publishes a monthly Soviet Propaganda Alert which is sent to all US embassies and agency departments abroad.
The US President himself has initiated several psychological warfare campaigns and operations. A few days after he assumed office Ronald Reagan asserted that the Soviet-US political treaties and agreements, such as SALT-II, and the Final Act of the Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe were worthless and should be reconsidered. The US President began to undermine detente, alleging at the same time that the Soviet Union had treacherously destroyed detente by building up its military potential.
Strategic parity is precisely what the US President and the extreme right-wing forces supporting him are against. They 43 strive for an overwhelming superiority in all types of armaments, including space weapons. Stephen F. Cohen, Professor of Politics at Princeton, noted:
``All evidence indicates that the Reagan Administration has abandoned... the political goals that had shaped American strategic doctrine since the 1940s, for the very different purpose of destroying the Soviet Union as a world power.
``Thus the Administration's persistent talk about ' destabilizing' and 'prevailing over' the 'evil empire', and its apparent unwillingness to negotiate a strategic arms agreement. It means a rejection of nuclear parity for a renewed and impossible quest for superiority...''^^17^^
The US President is becoming an active participant in the psychological war, which he views as a prelude to nuclear war aimed at the physical destruction of the Soviet Union. In many instances his statements have been sheer lies and misinformation, but they were immediately taken up by the world's biggest apparatus of psychological warfare. No previous US President has ever used his high position so often for misinforming the Americans and the world public. For example, Reagan accused the Soviet Union of supporting "international terrorism" and stated that the United States would dp everything in its power to discover the nerve centres of this terrorism. The job was assigned to the CIA. US journalists began to turn to the CIA for information about how the USSR supports and feeds "international terrorism". But their attempts to get such information were futile since, as was stated by The Washington Post in February 1981, the CIA dossiers had no evidence to support Reagan's accusations. But, by issuing such a statement, the US President let the cat out of the bag, for in the subsequent period numerous facts were revealed to the whole world, exposing the acts of terrorism committed by the US special services and the US Administration's direct participation in international terrorism. We can cite Washington's fervent support of Israel's extensive fascist-type terror towards the Lebanese citizens which has been elevated to the rank of state policy. We can also cite the sending of terrorists into Central America for the struggle against the Sandinista regime in Nicaragua, the rendering of support to "death squads" in El Salvador and the invasion of Grenada.
A classic example of top-level misinformation with the President's personal participation in a propaganda campaign based on deception, is the act of psychological subversion and espionage connected with an airliner belonging to Korean Air Lines, which made a flight on the night of August 31- 44 September 1, 1983, from Anchorage to Seoul and was shot down by the Soviet air defence system.
The flight was planned as a reconnaissance mission aimed at detecting the Soviet electronic air defence system. But it also contained a potential propaganda charge---if the airliner was shot down the United States would launch an extensive propaganda campaign. Everything had been planned in advance. The Soviet Union had only one alternative---to shoot down the plane which had been flying for three hours over a vitally important area of the country. After the US President made a statement condemning the USSR, his Administration began to dramatize the situation and step up the propaganda campaign. In particular, a special group to coordinate the campaign was set up at the USIA. Every day the agency distributed statements and articles to its offices throughout the world. RIAS, RFE and RL joined the campaign. Naturally, the campaign was actively supported by the mass media in NATO countries, especially the BBC, Deutsche Welle and the Voice of Israel.
However, it is becoming increasingly obvious that Washington had calculated the death of 269 passengers as a possible outcome of the flight long before the plane took off from Anchorage. Evidence, facts and calculations are being published in the press, exposing the criminal provocation of the US President. For example, a book by Japanese journalist Akio Takahasi came out in 1984 entitled The President's Crime.^^18^^ Using incontrovertible evidence, the author showed that the flight of South Korea's Boeing-747, which had violated Soviet air space in the region of Kamchatka and Sakhalin on the night of August 31 -September 1, 1983, was a reconnaissance mission of a provocative nature. Akib Takahasi as well as scientists, experts and intelligence officers of various countries proved that the provocation sanctioned by Ronald Reagan had been a twofold operation, that is, it pursued two objectives.
First of all, the organizers of this crime intended to carry out an extensive reconnaissance operation and gather detailed intelligence about strategically important areas in the Soviet Far East and the USSR's air defence system.
Another objective was sharply to intensify tension in the world and create political conditions for implementing Washington's plans for a military buildup.
The implementation of the provocative propaganda campaign around this tragedy demonstrated that the Western radio centres had attained a new level in the coordination of their 45 efforts. The Reagan Administration has made and continues to make consistent efforts to carry put its propaganda aggression against the Soviet Union on an international scale. By actively involving its allies in the psychological war against the Soviet Union, the United States makes use of the close ties between the radio propaganda centres in the NATO countries and the special services.
[46] __NUMERIC_LVL1__ Chapter III __ALPHA_LVL1__ Modern Western RadioOne of the main areas of Reagan's ``crusade'' against communism is the development of information services abroad. The core of this development is radio propaganda against the socialist countries. On July 19, 1982, Ronald Reagan declared:
``We intend to move forward consistent with budgetary requirements with a programme to modernize our primary means of international communication, our international radio system... The sad fact is that the Voice of America, Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty have been neglected for many years.''^^1^^
This statement, however, is not true, for all the US Administrations have devoted considerable attention to increasing radio propaganda, especially propaganda beamed to the socialist countries. Suffice it to recall the steps taken in the late 1970s by President Carter with the aim of expanding the VOA, RFE and RL activities.
On the recommendation of President Carter, who believed that the people in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe were the main listeners. Congress increased subsidies to the three state-supported propaganda radios, of which the VOA broadcasts only some of the time to the peoples of Eastern Europe, and RFE and RL---all of the time. Under Carter's Presidency 28 more powerful, longer-range radio transmitters were to be installed, 16 of them for broadcasting to Eastern Europe.^^2^^
47Broadcasting abroad intensified markedly after the Reagan Administration took office. The extreme right-wing forces in the US Congress actively supported Ronald Reagan in this undertaking. The Senators and Congressmen emphasized in their statements the strategic importance of radio in the psychological warfare against the socialist countries. Now and then they would employ military terms.
Congressman John G. Fary of Illinois cited the following excerpt from a Chicago newspaper published in Polish in support of his position regarding the importance of the VOA, RFE and RL:
``The strategic role of the radios should be reappraised and dramatically upgraded on our list of strategic priorities. Our great resources and technology should be fully exploited in a crush programme aimed at increasing the impact of shortwave radios to its maximum. These instruments represent our only means to erode the Soviet System...''^^3^^
Another Congressman, Robert H. Michel, Illinois, stated:
``The Voice of America and Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty are worth three divisions of troops---at least.''^^4^^
Congressman Gus Yatron of Pennsylvania also spoke of a radio war, using military language:
``Unbeknown to many Americans, we are involved in an international radio war...
``I am not alone in believing that the radios should be considered as elements in our national security. International broadcasting is an important weapon in our arsenal.''^^5^^
Many Congressmen have put forward a proposal to allocate funds to increase the capacities of US foreign broadcasting. In a reference to the calculations made by the archconservative Heritage Foundation, which provides ideological inspiration for the present US Administration, Congressman John LeBoutillier of New York holds that the past ten years have seriously undermined the efficiency of the work of the VOA and RFE/RL "With the pursuit of detente and the proclamation that America must get over its inordinate fear of communism, the radios have been seriously underfunded and allowed to lapse into technical obsolescence.''^^6^^
Many noted experts in the field of propaganda and psychological warfare, including Thomas Sorensen, believe it possible to influence the social life of communist states through various media: trade, press, cinema, scientific, cultural and sports contacts, literature, exhibitions, etc. But radio is, in their view, the principal medium, and cannot be compared with any others in range and effectiveness. John B. Whitton, a noted 48 radio broadcasting expert, stated back in 1963 at a Princeton University Conference: "We possess in the radio alone a marvellous instrument to reach the minds of men right around the world.''^^7^^ Radio still remains the quickest, most widespread and accessible medium of disseminating information.
Many radio warfare specialists in the USIA and various research centres hold that radio offers the opportunity of effectively influencing not so much the minds as the feelings of people because listeners cannot absorb within a short time all the nuances and details of news reports.
John B. Whitton and another specialist in broadcasting to other countries, Arthur Larson, stressed the particular merits of foreign radio propaganda for the West:
``Another reason why the radio is more potent than any other medium of communication is its tremendous range. While the press campaign from abroad stops at the frontier, the newscaster and radio commentator can speak to us from distant capitals. The entire world is their province...
``Not only is the range of radio almost unlimited: there is no adequate defense to its disturbances and dangers.''^^8^^
An important distinctive feature of radio propaganda facilitating its penetration of audiences and ensuring a high degree of efficiency is its ability to make its listeners feel that they are actually participating in what is going on in the world and that these events are real. The radio appeals to every listener much more than a newspaper appeals to its reader; it talks more privately with him and therefore can be more convincing.
Radio is inferior only to television where it concerns the ability to present world events as actually happening and immediate but it is far quicker and therefore has the first say. More often than not a short news report broadcast on the radio can have a greater ideological and psychological impact than a lengthy logically substantiated article published the next day.
In most instances radio broadcasts reach their listeners at odd moments, requiring from them less concentration of attention and less brainwork; therefore the audiences are not sufficiently critical of the content and orientation of radio broadcasts. With this in view, Western radio stations use in psychological radio warfare those methods which affect their listeners so as to stir up the superficial layers of their consciousness and rouse them to action, while suppressing their resistance and determination.
Aware of this aspect of radio broadcasting, the special services of the NATO countries have turned radio into an important instrument of psychological warfare. In their 49 Psychological Warfare Casebook, William E. Daugherty and Morris Janowitz give radio first place on the list of methods of psychological warfare.^^9^^ Analysing the role of the US mass media in psychological warfare, aforementioned John B. Whitton stressed that the "dramatic development" in this field was the invention and use of the new medium---radio.^^10^^
The use of radio for broadcasting to the socialist countries, particularly to the USSR, is referred to in the United States plainly as "radio war" and "radio aggression''.
The Reagan Administration has surpassed all its predecessors in the scope of radio warfare. Subversive radio propaganda against the countries of Eastern Europe and the states which have embarked on the non-capitalist path of development has become an ugly feature of Washington's activities in the 1980s.
The Reagan Administration regards the radio corporation RFE/RL as the most effective weapon in the psychological war against the countries of Eastern Europe.
On January 31, 1984, there were 1,674 employees at RFE/RL, of whom 1,000 worked in Munich where 90 per cent of all radio programmes are prepared. Forty-six radio transmitters beam propaganda on 80 different frequencies for a total of 148 hours a day or, on average, 1,020 hours a week in Bulgarian, Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Romanian, Polish and 15 languages of the peoples of the Soviet Union.^^11^^
The 1984 annual report of the Board for International Broadcasting points out that with personal support from the President and the Congress, "RFE/RL funding has been substantially increased, both for the short and long run.''^^12^^ Indeed, on August 1, 1985, Congress approved the allocation to RFE/RL of 250 million dollars for the fiscal years 1986 and 1987.
In the 1980-1982 period Ronald Reagan reorganized the Board for International Broadcasting and almost entirely replaced the leadership of RFE/RL. Frank Shakespeare, USIA Director in the 1969-1973 period and Reagan's ideological associate, was appointed Chairman of the Board for Internationa! Broadcasting. Frank Shakespeare, however, did not get along with the RFE/RL leadership; having made many enemies among the congressmen and journalists, he is resigning as from January 1, 1986. In accordance with reorganization begun in August 1982 at Senator Pell's initiative and with Reagan's support, all members of the Board are the only directors of RFE/RL with authority to make political decisions __PRINTERS_P_49_COMMENT__ 4---928 50 and appoint the most important employees of the radio stations. The Board for International Broadcasting includes nine members appointed by the President and approved by the Congress. (Every year one-third of the Board membership is replaced.)
James L. Buckley, former New York Senator and a Department of State counsellor, was appointed President of RFE/RL. The post of Director of Radio Liberty was established and given to George Bailey, a CIA officer who had for a long time worked for the anti-Soviet Russian-language magazine Kontinent and the right-wing Axel Springer Group newspaper trust. Soon after, however, he had to leave the post of RL Director. Another CIA officer, Gerd von Doemming, was appointed Director of RL's Russian Service.
George R. Urban was appointed Director of the Radio Free Europe Division at the Board for International Broadcasting. A Hungarian by origin, he was Director of the BBC European Service in the 1948-1960 period and from 1974 on worked at RFE in London.
Ronald Reagan believed that RL's Munich leadership did not understand the importance of his policies and supervised their replacement personally. The new heads of RL adopted a policy of whipping up rabid anti-communism and antiSovietism even further. RFE broadcasts became even more subversive and anti-socialist in content. Speaking at the Commonwealth Club in San Francisco in October 1982, RFE/RL President Buckley said that the US President was calling for an open recognition of the government policy of supporting individuals and groups in the socialist countries who were, in one way or another, opposing the existing social system and, in this connection, pointed to the need for the radio stations to adopt an offensive line. He gave to understand that the efforts aimed at undermining the listeners' confidence in their own governments would be intensified.
The RFE/RL leadership set about implementing Ronald Reagan's programme. Russian Service employees (people of Jewish origin who had left the Soviet Union a short time before) were particularly enthusiastic in conducting psychological warfare and radio aggression against the Soviet Union.
Since 1982, with a view to increasing the efficiency of interference in the internal affairs of the socialist countries, RFE/RL began to undertake measures jointly worked out by the US National Security Council, the Department of State, the Board for International Broadcasting and the USIA.
51By 1985 it was envisaged that the number of RFE/RL employees would be increased by 200 persons. In 1984 alone it was necessary to recruit 100 persons, mainly in the national services. The directorship finds it extremely difficult to recruit people for Radio Free Europe and almost impossible for Radio Liberty. The recruits are mostly former Soviet citizens of Jewish origin.^^13^^
The Munich radio centre is undergoing complete reconstruction and modernization. Facilities are being modernized in the city of Gloria in Portugal where there are 19 of the 45 short-wave RFE/RL relay stations; satellite-assisted communications are being established with New York and Washington; the eight obsolete 50 kW short-wave transmitters in Biblis and Lampertheim in West Germany are being replaced with four new 100 kW transmitters. It should also be mentioned that there is cooperation between RFE/RL and the Voice of America and other US organizations in the development and use of direct radio communication satellites for broadcasting abroad.
In 1982, on Ronald Reagan's instruction, the National Security Council took steps to find installation sites for the new RL and VGA transmitters capable of broadcasting directly to the Soviet Central Asian republics, as well as to the countries of the Middle East which pursue a policy independent of the United States. In pursuance of the National Security Council's recommendation, the Department of State started diplomatic negotiations with the governments of several Asian countries with the intention of obtaining appropriate sites for the installation of transmitters. The talks, however, did not yield the desired result.
In May 1983 the Turkish government declined a proposal by the United States to deploy 11 RFE/RL and VGA relay stations on Turkish territory. As was noted by the Turkish newspaper Milliyet, Ankara expressed concern that the establishment of US radio facilities in the country might be detrimental to good-neighbourly relations between Turkey and the USSR. The same concern is shared by many public organizations in West Germany, Portugal and Spain where either RFE/RL headquarters or transmitters and relay stations are located.
The Reagan Administration has provided RFE/RL with facilities to improve and intensify the following activities:
Expanding the opportunities for gathering information about the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe;
__PARAGRAPHS_PAUSE__ __PRINTERS_P_51_COMMENT__ 4* 52
__CAPTION__
The RFE transmitters in Spain. The CIA has set up its own base of
Making a more thorough study of Eastern Europe, including the USSR;
Increasing the number of business trips by RFE/RL employees to the USA and Western Europe; Modernizing RFE/RL studio facilities; Expanding the production capacities of the modern equipment available to handle the factual material and prepare texts; Setting up broadcasts via communication satellites. The RFE/RL leadership instructs the national services to give primary attention and more time in their programmes to events in Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union and its republics and less to world events and those in the United States. Although news reports, political commentaries and analyses make up a greater part of the radio programmes. Western radio stations, in an effort to attract larger audiences, deal extensively with important sports and cultural events, as well as with various historical subjects if they can be interpreted to advantage from the viewpoint of psychological warfare.^^14^^
Reappraisal of the VGA's activities and role is an integral part of the campaign launched by Ronald Reagan with a view to mobilizing his information services to the struggle against the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe. In his speech at the VOA on its 40th anniversary Ronald Reagan stated that the 53 challenges the Americans faced were "no less grave and momentous than those that spawned the Voice 40 years ago"^^15^^.
Referring to the President's statement, US journalist Robin Grey, who is familiar with the VOA and the problems faced by US propaganda, wrote:
``The Reagan Administration is trying to recapture those good old days of World War II. Then, VOA combatted German and Japanese propaganda with its own version of the truth. This time, the enemy is the Soviet Union. The Reagan Administration, especially Charles Z. Wick... seems to many VOA staffers to be eager to load propaganda guns, to let loose salvos of `truth' at Moscow in what the Administration sees as a life-and-death struggle with the enemy.''^^16^^
President Reagan, USIA Director Charles Wick and his friend James Conkling, then VOA Director, gave this principal US broadcasting body new political instructions, with primary emphasis being placed on the VGA's task clearly and effectively to reflect US policies. In the autumn of 1981 Conkling told his staff he was considering "allowing the network's foreign language broadcasters more leeway in selecting and interpreting the news...''^^17^^
James Conkling appointed Philip Nicolaides/ a former Houston radio commentator, the VGA's new coordinator for commentary and news analysis. Prior to his appointment Nicolaides made the accusation in his memo to the VOA Director that the radio station was suffering from sentimentality and stated that the Voice of America should restore its function as a propaganda agency and reverse the "tendency toward mush". He stressed that the VOA was, as all the world understood, a propaganda agency. Concerning the Soviet Union, it should take efforts "to `destabilize' the Soviet Union and its satellites by promoting disaffection between peoples and rulers...''^^18^^ Depicting the VOA as an offensive weapon of psychological warfare waged by the Reagan Administration against the Soviet Union did not cause any strong protests on the part of the VOA staffers, though there were some who did not like Nicolaides' call to remember the experience of the Second World War, but now in the context of the struggle against a new enemy.
The VOA Director placed Nicolaides under his protection and took steps to change the staff and put into key positions those who, as the US press put it, stuck to the aggressive style of propaganda.
54In the autumn of 1981 rumours were rife that a list of VGA staffers to be dismissed---from the leadership down to editors and rank-and-file workers---was being prepared. This was due to Ronald Reagan's intention to change the nature of the radio programmes. The main initiator of the plan of turning the VGA into a more active weapon of US foreign policy was Richard Allen, later appointed Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs.
The autumn of 1981 witnessed an event which played a role of catalyst precipitating the campaign for reorganizing the VGA apparatus. Richard Allen raged on the phone at directors Wick and Conkling over a story that a VGA correspondent had filed about the CIA-organized arms supply to Afghan counter revolutionaries. The VGA report did no more than repeat a recent ABC expose. The point of Allen's rage was not whether the story was true or not (it happened to be true) but whether the VGA, as a United States tax-supported radio operation, "should tell the truth if the facts supported Soviet propaganda or contradicted American policy"^^19^^.
In the first months after his appointment James Conkling, Wick's old friend, who was ignorant of the problems of propaganda and radio broadcasting, was ``coached'' by the USIA and by November 1981 returned to his office to put things in order there.
In November of the same year Deputy Director William Haratunian was dismissed from the VGA. Later other leading VGA employees were replaced.
``The old newsroom group that had stubbornly fought ambassadors and uptown, that had lobbied Congress to get the charter approved, and that privately and publicly had argued for news `credibility'---this VGA group had been decimated in about four months.''^^20^^
When the VGA staffers publicly expressed their displeasure with the new directorship. Wick's men reminded them that it was not recommended that they talk to journalists. On the VGA and USIA directors' instructions, members of staff were to be cleared by the Federal Bureau of Investigation.^^21^^ A toplevel staff shake-up,is still going on. Upon instituting it, USIA Director Charles Wick stated that "there might be Soviet `moles' among the VGA ranks"^^2^^.^^2^^.
The shake-up also affected the VGA directors who were alleged to be insufficiently conservative. In March 1982 James Conkling was replaced by John Hughes who only held this post for four months to be replaced by Kenneth Tomlinson. On 55 August 27, 1984, Tomlinson was in turn succeeded by Ernest Eugene Pell, who had been Deputy Director for the VGA's programming.
Conkling had expanded the VGA's political sections, and the radio station started broadcasting anti-Soviet editorials.
After the appointment of John Hughes to the post of VGA Director, the station started broadcasting in a sharply antiSoviet manner in two more languages---Pushtu to Afghanistan and Azerbaijani to the Soviet Union. The replacement of Conkling by Hughes was due to the fact that despite the politicization of the VGA, its activities were subject to growing criticism by the conservatives. "Conservative Republicans, including close advisers to President Reagan, have contended that it failed to present government policy vigorously, particularly in its broadcasting to the Soviet Union and other East European countries.''^^23^^ Under John Hughes' directorship, the VGA broadcast in 41 languages for a total of 950 hours a week and produced editorials of a primarily anti-Soviet nature every day.
Under Tomlinson's leadership "the Voice of America has become less the voice of America... but of the Administration's foreign policy"^^24^^. In April 1984 Reader's Digest wrote:
"... Information and ideas are among the most powerful weapons, and international radio is a direct and effective means of employing them.
``Weapons that win men's minds are every bit as potent. The United States must beef up this arsenal, starting with the Voice of America.''^^25^^
Tomlinson strove to make propaganda against the USSR more offensive and aggressive, full of criticism of Moscow's foreign and domestic policies. He tried to make extensive use of emigres who had fled the Soviet Union and whose stories about democratic America and the lack of freedom in the USSR would sound, in his opinion, more convincing to radio listeners in the USSR.
The present authors have calculated that the Voice of America devotes more than 80 per cent of its air time to broadcasts to the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.
All in all, the VGA broadcasts in almost 50 languages for a total of 1,000 hours a week. Apart from this, the VGA makes its programmes available to local radio stations in other countries. These programmes, prepared in the central offices or by VGA employees in various parts of the world, are transmitted to 4,000 local radio stations abroad, mainly in Latin America.
56In 1984 the VGA's budget came to 153.5 million dollars and its staff comprised 2,700 people. They are mostly professional workers of the USIA foreign service, many of whom have worked abroad and believe that information can always be presented in different ways. The Voice of America has 15 correspondents posted abroad and runs 26 studios, mainly in Washington. There are also studios in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles and Miami.
At present, in accordance with the modernization programme which will use up 1,500 million dollars by 1990, there are plans to increase the VOA's capacities for broadcasting to the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe and developing states. In 1985 about 200 million dollars were allocated for-modernizing the VOA's worldwide broadcasting system. These measures include:
Completing the construction of powerful radio broadcasting stations in Sri Lanka and Botswana that will considerably increase the range of VOA broadcasting to Soviet Central Asia, Western China as well as East and South Asia;
Establishing a network of powerful medium-wave transmitters in the countries of the Caribbean for beaming propaganda against Cuba and the surrounding countries;
Replacing the facilities at RIAS;
Replacing all the equipment in 19 of the 26 radio studios in the United States and installing the latest technology.
At present the Voice of America has 41 transmitters in the United States and 64 transmitters operating from Britain, West Germany, Greece, Morocco, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Liberia, Thailand and Botswana. The total capacity of all 109 transmitters is 22 million watts.
The modernization programme incorporates a secret contract stipulating the use of a private radio station in Costa Rica for broadcasting on the MW and SW bands, particularly to Nicaragua. "Another major element in the Western Hemisphere programme is to be... a short-wave and mediumwave relay station in Puerto Rico to cover the Caribbean, Central America and South America. It is projected for completion in August 1990.''^^26^^
The appointment of Ernest Eugene Pell as VOA Director is associated with Reagan's and Wick's intention to devote primary attention to the technical improvement in the arsenal of official propaganda. Pell has been particularly enthusiastic in his efforts to get the latest technology introduced at the VOA within the shortest possible time.
57The House of Representatives and the Senate are constantly providing full support to all the initiatives of the Reagan Administration towards intensifying the United States' aggressive broadcasting policies with regard to the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. Their support is expressed above all in the increase in annual allocations for the VOA, RFE and RL In November 1981 the US Senate issued Resolution 243 stipulating that "... an inter-agency study should be conducted by the United States Government to determine the feasibility of direct broadcast satellite use by Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty, and the Voice of America...''^^27^^
Many Congressmen and Senators, regardless of their party affiliation, have either put forward their own initiatives or supported the Reagan Administration's steps to expand and intensify the psychological radio war against the socialist countries. For example, in his speech in support of modernizing the US international radio broadcasting system Jack F. Kemp, a member of the House of Representatives, New York, said:
``Radio, and not television or newspapers, is the principle source of information abroad." That was why he supported VOA Director Tomlinson's efforts aimed at "expanding our international broadcasts" and the need, stressed by Tomlinson, "to modernize the Voice of America's broadcasting equipment"^^28^^.
Another Congressman, Robert H. Michel of Illinois, pointed out that "... one way of hurting the Soviet Union would be to make our international broadcasting stations---the Voice of America and Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty---the best and most technically advanced in the world"^^29^^.
Concerning the reasons for increasing funds for modernization, John LeBoutillier, a member of the House of Representatives from the state of New York, once said: "Increased funding is urgently needed to modernize equipment, particularly to combat jamming by the Soviets and to extend the broadcast signal to regions not now reached.''^^30^^
The Voice of America incorporates RIAS (Radio in the
American Sector) with a staff of more than 600 and a powerful
transmitter. RIAS broadcasts propaganda to the German
Democratic Republic. As US propaganda experts admit, "RIAS
... has long been recognized not only as the most successful of
all official US operations in the foreign information field but
also as the epitome of dynamic 'psychological warfare'."31
Here is an assessment of RIAS's political makeup by John
58
__CAPTION__
The main building of the RIAS radio station, which conducts
subversive propaganda against the German Democratic Republic.
Taber, Chairman of the House Appropriations Committee.
During a RIAS budget hearing he said: "We don't need to
spend much time on RIAS; we all know what a wonderful job
it's doing.''^^32^^
US specialists in psychological warfare take particular note of RIAS's services during the disturbances in the German Democratic Republic in June 1953. In 1950 RIAS started broadcasting special programmes for workers that helped prepare the ground for protests in June 1953 and later gave a signal for the commencement of the disturbances. According to US estimates, RIAS instructions were the main factor in the organized nature of the disturbances.
In recent years RIAS has abandoned open calls for disobedience to the authorities in the German Democratic Republic and for sabotage, but continues its subversive activities in a covert form.
A prolonged campaign to influence East German schoolchildren gives an idea of RIAS's new methods. RIAS broadcast its answers to the questions asked during lessons in the schools. Its specialists had studied the class timetable and the contents of textbooks, mainly on social subjects. They also 59 took into account the time when schoolchildren come home from school.
The overwhelming majority of RIAS employees are citizens of the Federal Republic of Germany, the West German government covers the lion's share of RIAS's expenses, which in 1982 amounted to 63 million marks. Work has been started to set up a RIAS TV studio, for which the US government has earmarked seven million dollars.
Another branch of the Voice of America is Radio Marti which beams propaganda broadcasts to Cuba.
In the past three years the British government has on many occasions spoken of its intention to reduce the BBC External Services' budget. It was planned to discontinue BBC broadcasts to France, Italy, Spain, Brazil, the African Horn, Burma and Malta. At the same time, it was announced that broadcasts to the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe would not be reduced.
But the government's initiative met with considerable opposition in the British Parliament and was severely criticized in the press. The cessation of broadcasts to Brazil and the African Horn aroused the strongest objections. The main argument raised by the opponents of the government's plan was that the ending of BBC broadcasts might, in their view, weaken the Western world's ideological influence in those regions of the world.
Protests were also voiced overseas. The US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations held a special meeting to discuss the issue of reducing the budget of the BBC External Services. The US Senators urged the Thatcher government to refrain from the planned cuts.
The BBC directorship instructs its external services to carry on so-called ``factological'' propaganda and supply their listeners with "balanced information". Ostensibly objective, BBC broadcasts give their listeners a distorted idea of the aims and objectives of the USSR's policy of peace. The BBC is increasingly playing upon the difficulties experienced by the Soviet economy for propaganda purposes. Referring to the actual errors in the Soviet economy discussed in the Soviet press, the BBC deliberately and maliciously links them to alleged mistakes in the Soviet Communist Party's policy and the faults of socialism as a whole. BBC broadcasts are primarily intended for inculcating in their listeners a feeling of mistrust towards the Soviet Communist Party's policies and discontent with Soviet government. Attempts are also being made to play upon the national feelings of the peoples of the USSR.
60Actively engaged in subversive propaganda against the USSR and Eastern Europe is the West German radio Deutsche Welle (DW). It was founded in May 1953 by the Association of Public Law Broadcasting Organizations. On November 29, 1960, a law was enacted on the basis of the West German Constitution whereby Deutsche Welle was allowed to engage in broadcasting and was placed under the Bonn government's control. Since 1962 its employees have belonged to the Department on the Protection of the Constitution.
The DW headquarters is situated in Cologne. The radio station is one of the most important instruments of West German international propaganda. At present it broadcasts a total of 589 hours a week in 34 languages.
While upholding the thesis on the existence of a single German nation, DW belittles in its German-language broadcasts the achievements of the German Democratic Republic. The East European service, set up on Konrad Adenauer's direct instructions, broadcasts anti-Soviet material in Russian for a total of 225 minutes a day. Since 1966 it has been headed by Botho Kirsch, who in the early 1960s was a Frankfurter Rundschau correspondent in Moscow but was expelled for publishing slanderous material. Kirsch did not enjoy the respect of his colleagues.
Here is what the newspaper Deutsche Zeitung wrote about Botho Kirsch: "Constantly vehement and the only Moscow correspondent expelled by the Soviets, he has to contain his rage here and is now primarily engaged in making enemies for himself. In early April he submitted his study of the costs and content of the Deutsche Welle and Deutschlandfunk, which the latter described as a falsification.''^^33^^
The DW programmes were so anti-communist that they essentially contradicted the policies of the Bonn government. Therefore, under public pressure, in 1975 the radio station underwent reorganization with the result that the head of the East European service, Botho Kirsch, was left responsible for Russian-language broadcasts only and lost control of broadcasts to Eastern Europe.
``But the changes did not prove to be very effective. The group of Sovietologists and specialists in Slavonic studies, which is still compiling programmes in Kirsch's section, consists mainly of emigres. Moreover, former DW Director Walter Steigner, who resigned from his post in 1980, openly instructed his employees: "Our ideas should be dragged into the life of Communist states at all costs, without disregarding 61 either sophisticated psychological methods or affability and sympathy towards those whom in reality we hate.''
The Deutsche Welle instructions with regard to propaganda can be briefly described as follows:
---discredit in its listeners' eyes Soviet foreign policy and present it as expansionist;
---focus the audiences' attention on the difficulties and failures in the economic development of the USSR, deliberately exaggerating them and thereby arousing among Soviet people a feeling of dissatisfaction, inferiority and, eventually, discontent with Soviet power.
Regrettably, it should be stated that recently some other Western radio stations such as Radio Canada International, the Voice of Israel, Radio Vatican and Deutschlandfunk have increased the amount of anti-Soviet and anti-communist material in their foreign broadcasts.
[62] __NUMERIC_LVL1__ Chapter IV __ALPHA_LVL1__ The Aims and MethodsAn official document entitled "The Mission of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty Broadcasts" states: "As media of news and news analysis, RFE and RL observe high professional standards of accuracy, objectivity, timeliness..." It is further stressed that the broadcasting of these stations "is international in the breadth of its coverage, its freedom from national or sectarian bias, its dedication to the open communication of accurate information and a broad range of democratic ideas".^^1^^
Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1977 outlined in a message from President Carter to Congress, dated October 12 the same year, pointed out that "VOA news will be accurate, objective and comprehensive".^^2^^
The charter of the Deutsche Welle radio station says that it "shall present to listeners abroad a complete picture of political, cultural and economic life in Germany .... The information shall be complete, truthful and objective".^^3^^ The objectives of the BBC are defined in similar terms.
In practice, however, these radio stations not only fail to observe but grossly violate the principles laid down in their charters.
The content of the programmes of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty is determined by the political aspirations of Ronald Reagan, who is calling for a crusade against communism and socialism, by their specially selected staff and by their close ties with the CIA and other centres of psychological warfare.
63Very few people in the West and still fewer in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe believe that the governments of the United States, Great Britain and West Germany spend hundreds of millions to inform the audience in socialist countries through the Voice of America, the BBC, the Deutsche Welle and other radio stations of the major events in the world with the utmost accuracy, objectivity and timeliness.
In 1978 Robert Daniels, professor of history at the University of Vermont, analysed the work of Radio Liberty, in particular, the quality of its Russian service programmes. In his view "... the overall impact of programming is to give RL the appearance of being an emigre organ beamed at other potential emigres".^^4^^ Professor Maurice Friedberg, chairman of the department of Slavic languages and literatures of the University of Illinois, who also took part in the survey, felt that "the very hostile tone of some of the programmes" should be changed.
The New York Times, which also made inquiries into what RFE and RL were beaming to the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe stressed in its editorial of April 1, 1977:
``In recent years, the Congress has openly funded the two stations and allowed them to continue, under tighter policy regulations, to focus on the domestic affairs and debates of the Communist nations...''^^5^^
In May 1984 Theodore Stanger, the Bonn bureau chief of the Newsweek magazine, met James L. Buckley, President of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, "to discuss whether the hard-line anti-communism of the Administration has affected the objectivity and the long-term mission of RFE-RL". Stanger pointed out in particular that "...your broadcasters are refugees and they have deep personal interests in what's going on back home". Didn't that pose a built-in objectivity problem?6 Buckley agreed that such people "can become emotional''.
Senator William Fulbright has said that Radios Free Europe and Liberty were simply a part of a system---a system of falsehood and deception, a system of conspiracies aimed at misleading not only the American people but anyone who would listen.
It is a fact that the audiences of RFE and RL are steadily shrinking. According to reports in the US press, although it is very difficult to say how many people actually listen to these stations, the general opinion is that the number of their listeners is quite small.
But no sooner had Radio Liberty staff included in their broadcasts several programmes on historical subjects which 64 were presented more or less objectively in an effort to attract more listeners, than there came a peremptory admonition, this time from observer Jack Anderson who pointed out in The Washington Post on April 14, 1981 that the federally funded broadcasters "echoed the Soviet line... Whether these broadcasts are the result of sabotage or merely stupidity is not clear. But an eyes-only memo charges that the station's Russianlanguage broadcasts 'are damaging not only to Radio Liberty's reputation but also to the US interest as a whole'. ...Some broadcasts are openly .anti-democratic and anti-Western, such as several criticizing the 'political freedom' of Western Europe as responsible for the persistence of terrorism.''
The memo, titled bluntly "Radio Liberty Russian-Service Broadcasts Damaging to the United States", was prepared for the Board for International Broadcasting, which oversees the station.
The memo's author "found that American management has lost effective control" over the radio station's activity. "He recommended that an American 'with the requisite linguistic, political and historical background' be named director of Radio Liberty, a post that has been vacant for 34 of the last 44 months.''^^7^^
This particular columnist is clearly not in the least concerned that broadcasting should observe the standards of "reliability, authority, accuracy and objectivity," of which the bosses of the Western mass media talk so much.
Jack Anderson did not reveal anything startling in his column. He only stressed once again the strict conformity of Radio Liberty's policy concerning information and propaganda with the policy of the US Administration. Contrary to the claim quoted by Anderson, "American management" has never lost "effective control" over the work of the radio station. As for the causes of the "serious anomalies" in the activity of RL, which is equally true of RFE, they are much more fundamental and far-reaching than Jack Anderson and some other advocates of a hard-line policy towards the USSR and East European countries claim them to be.
The theoretical and practical specialists of US radio propaganda and psychological warfare believe that the real reasons for the low level of effectiveness of programmes beamed to socialist countries are quite different.
They include, above all, the lack of inspiring ideals in the West. John B. Whitton, the Princeton University professor, writes:
65``A major criticism, often heard, of our programme in the field of information and propaganda is the failure to formulate a definite, conscious purpose. ... In contrast, the communist bloc appears to know just where it is going." Whitton goes on to quote Lasswell, who wrote in 1942: "Slogans like the 'Four Freedoms' are not enough unless they are completed by slogans that point to the operating rules of a society that puts freedom into practice. We are in a war of ideas, but we have not found our ideas." And Whitton continues: "This is as true today in the Cold War. Our policy has been too negative, its programmes and slogans almost always a mere response, or reaction, to the more imaginative initiatives of the Soviets.''^^8^^ In addition Whitton stresses that "...the rich and powerful United States has offered no inspirational ideal or positive social programme"^^9^^.
George Allen, former USIA Director, has written:
"In the eyes of the world, the United States is 'Mr. Rich'. Everyone already knows that we have the highest standard of living in the world. The more we tell them about it, the more we aggravate the problem. Three-fourths (one may say ninetenths) of the people of the world are poor. ...We talk a good deal about evolution instead of revolution ... but the miserably poor want to turn the world upside down---today. They regard the United States as basically in favour of the status quo. All rich people are supposed to be that way.
``More significant, perhaps, is the fact that Moscow is regarded by most of the poor people around the world as the friend of the poor and of the rebel... In a nation motivated by revolutionary fervour, including countries which have recently become independent and those undergoing rapid social change, there is great enthusiasm for planning for the future. Five, seven, and ten-year plans are popular. People are told to sacrifice present living standards for future benefits to the nation and to their children. Emphasis on consumer goods for the present generation seems disloyal, unpatriotic, and even immoral. ...Russians, who are pictured as sacrificing themselves today for the benefit of their children of tomorrow, are somehow regarded as more admirable than profligate Americans.''^^10^^
The attractive force of the Soviet Union's ideas in foreign countries and the United States' lack of such ideas was commented upon by the Time magazine, which wrote on March 9, 1981:
``The difference has caused, observers say, the American image to be capitalistic, imperial, and elitist while the Soviets __PRINTERS_P_65_COMMENT__ 5 928 66 are perceived as `pro-people'.''^^11^^ Robert Goheen, former US Ambassador to India, who was born in India, told a Time correspondent:
``The Soviets have created an image of a country that is non-threatening and supportive of India. Because of a record of more than 30 years, Soviet ships in the Indian Ocean are perceived as benign, whereas American ships raise the threat of a superpower confrontation.''^^12^^
Many US propaganda experts believe that one way out of this situation should be the replacement in American propaganda material of such words as ``capitalism'' and `` imperialism'' which are unpopular with the peoples of the world with words like "private property" and "free enterprise" and the dropping from the vocabulary of such words as ``socialism'' and ``communism'' and their derivatives. Back in 1964, for instance, C. L. Sulzberger wrote in The New York Times:
``A research report of the United States Information Agency has ruefully discovered that the more our propaganda advertises the virtues of `capitalism' and attacks `Socialism', the less the world likes us. It is small comfort to argue that what we mean by these words is different from what most foreigners mean. Confused semantics make bad public relations.
``Having analysed conclusions of its poll-takers in both hemispheres, the USIA study observes: 'Capitalism is evil. The United States is the leading capitalist country. Therefore the United States is evil.' It would be difficult to exaggerate the harm that this line of thinking has done. ...
``Capitalism is a dirty word to millions of non-Marxists who see `Socialism' as vaguely benevolent. When the USIA sampled foreign opinion it found that to the majority `Socialism' did not mean government ownership and was not necessarily related to Communism. Rather it seemed to imply a system favouring welfare of common people.
``Most foreigners apparently don't regard `capitalism' as descriptive of an efficient economy or a safeguard of individual rights. To them it means little concern for the poor, unfair distribution of wealth and undue influence of the rich. ...
``USIA found an impressive percentage of the British, West Germans, Italians, Japanese, Mexicans and Brazilians have a favourable opinion of `Socialism' and a strongly unfavourable opinion of `capitalism'. ...
`` `Capitalism', abroad, is frequently a pejorative word. Efforts to purge it of negative connotations by phrases like 'people's capitalism' have failed.
``But `Socialism' is chic. ...
67``Leopold Senghor of Senegal says 'Socialism is a sense of community which is a return to Africanism'. Julius Nyerere of Tanganyika insists 'no underdeveloped country can afford to be anything but ``Socialist'''. Tunisia's Habib Bourguiba claims Mohammed's companions 'were Socialists before the invention of the word'.
``The study concludes that foreigners attribute to the USA 'a high degree of capitalist exploitation and of capitalist power over the society as a whole, as well as (USIA's own italics) a great absence of those social welfare measures which, to them, are the decisive criterion of Socialism'.'"*^^3^^
Former USIA director, George Allen, also did not deny that this verbal device could change the situation and make US propaganda not only more affirmative but also more attractive. He admitted that "... when we say 'private enterprise' to a Latin American he immediately thinks our real aim is to help American firms increase their operations in Latin America. ... Moreover, it is not helpful for VGA and other United States communications media to use capitalistic phraseology in talking with Latin Americans. ... Here again, we must be realists. The word `capitalism' and the phrases which go with it are not good image-producing symbols for us in Latin America.''^^14^^
This conclusion was later accepted and vigorously acted upon by all mass media not only in the United States but in most other capitalist countries. Such terms and concepts as ``imperialism'', ``capitalism'', "class struggle", ``exploitation'', ``communism'', ``socialism'', "socialist democracy" and so on were banished from the political propaganda vocabulary of the Western radio services. At the same time the propagandists and specialists in psychological warfare in the West change or distort the real meaning of a term or concept. For example, the concept "national-liberation movement" has been replaced by the word ``terrorism''.
When he declared "ideological war" on the socialist community President Reagan found himself virtually unarmed. All the exertions made by Western philosophers, sociologists and economists to advance ideas or theories which would be constructive and consistent enough to stand up to Communist ideology---the theory of scientific Communism---were futile. The theories of "industrial society", "postindustrial society", "consumer society" and "technotron society," which were evolved in the late 1950s and 1960s, all met with failure. The economic crises of the 1970s and the early 1980s finally put to rest the myths about "economic stages" and "industrial society''.
68The 1980s have seen the further crumbling of all structures of capitalist society. The ideological crisis holds a special place in this process. The objective logic of capitalist development relentlessly raises questions to which bourgeois ideology can no longer find the answers. As the Italian political scientist C. Mongardini writes in his article "Ideological Change and Neoliberalism", "...ideology loses its primitive innovative force. It has, in effect, already given all that it could give to the development of society: it has finished modifying reality. On the contrary, it is reality in the phase of decline which begins to modify the ideology.''^^15^^
Capitalist ideology comes into conflict with reality and this, as C. Mongardini puts it, causes "... the changes in attitudes of the new generation, which seems increasingly more doubtful about progress as we have seen it and increasingly more sceptical about a world order that is rationally comprehensible"^^16^^.
Similar pessimistic conclusions were made by Richard Loewenthal, the well-known right-wing theoretician of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, who wrote, in particular:
``The crisis of Western culture... should be viewed, along with the crisis of the West's position in the world and the ecological crisis, as the third deep (modern) historical crisis born of the destructive consequences of Western society's dynamics.''
The degradation of bourgeois democracy, the collapse of illusions regarding civil rights and freedoms, the loss by the traditional bourgeois parties of the political trust of the masses and the colossal scale of corruption are some of the facts testifying that bourgeois ideology has no solid basis.
Today bourgeois ideology is also in conflict with man's moral values. Paul Johnson, a British political scientist and former editor of the New Statesman magazine, who is the author of numerous books and a convinced advocate of capitalism, wrote disconsolately in the conclusion to his article characteristically titled "Is There a Moral Basis for Capitalism? Dissenting Thoughts in a Collectivist Age": "It takes nerves these days to suggest there can be a moral basis for capitalism, let alone to argue that capitalism provides, on the whole, the best economic structure for man's moral fulfilment.''^^17^^
Robert Dallek, professor of history at the University of California, wrote in his substantial study Ronald Reagan. The Politics of Symbolism that Reagan's anti-Soviet attitude arises from inner conservative tensions about government authority and social change. "For Ronald Reagan the world outside the 69 United States is little more than an extension of the world within...
__FIX__ Insert many more blockquotes even though they look like normal paragraphs (surrounded in quotes) in original.``In the eyes of Reagan and other conservatives, the communism of the Soviet Union represents the end point, the logical culmination of dangerous currents---big government, atheism and relaxed moral standards...''^^18^^
Reagan has strengthened the President's power, curtailed the democratic rights of American citizens, expanded the practice of state interference in their private lives and filled the ideological vacuum with brute force and ideas which nourish the aggressive nature of the country's foreign policy and militant anti-communism. Many political scientists in the West regard as dangerous for the future of the entire world Reagan's attempts to promote militant anti-Sovietism and anticommunism to the level of official US ideology. These attempts are aimed at fomenting fear of, and hatred for, the USSR. The US Administration eagerly snatches at every opportunity to throw dirt at the Soviet Union, to present it in a negative light.
Their unappealing objectives and lack of ideas are compensated by the Western mass media and special services, especially the foreign language radio services of the United States, with sophisticated propaganda devices and new methods of psychological warfare. An example of such activities is given in an excerpt from the book The Man Who Kept the Secrets. Richard Helms & the CIA written by Thomas Powers:
Frank Wisner, Deputy Director for Operations, CIA (1952- 1958), "built his propaganda apparatus into a large but delicate instrument which he called his 'mighty Wurlitzer'.^^*^^ In its overt, white version it consisted mainly of two huge radio operations based in Germany, Radio Liberation (after 1956, Radio Liberty),which broadcast to Russia in fourteen languages, and Radio Free Europe, which broadcast to the satellite countries. They provided the bass notes; the treble was played by propaganda assets throughout the world, from CIAfunded newspapers in English and other languages to local publishers, editors, and reporters who could be counted upon to plant CIA stories from time to time. ...Wisner's boast was that he could sit down at his mighty Wurlitzer and play just about any tune he liked, from eerie horror music (Moscow is planning a purge of the Western parties!!!) to light fantasias.''^^19^^
_-_-_^^*^^ Wurlitzer is a musical keyboard instrument, a kind of electric organ very popular in the United States.
70The chief aspects of this broadcasting activity are misinformation, deceit and attempts to instill mistrust in the ideals of socialism and communism and foment national discord and religious prejudices. A parallel course of action entails ignoring, distorting or belittling the achievements scored by socialist countries in the social, scientific, cultural and other spheres. Every effort is made to put stress on the shortcomings and negative aspects by playing up facts taken from the press and radio broadcasts of socialist countries.
US radio stations broadcasting to other countries have completely abandoned what seems to be their primary task: keeping the listeners informed about life in the United States. They hasten first of all to talk about Soviet domestic and foreign policy in all seriousness and in a manner which is repellent to many Soviet listeners.
The activity of US radio stations is a vivid example of US interference in the internal affairs of the Soviet Union:
(a) by focusing the attention of the audience on the difficulties and problems of the Soviet Union's economic development, by exaggerating them out of all proportion, by giving their own interpretation of measures aimed at strengthening the social and public order in the country, these radio services display their open intention, as instructed by the US Administration, to awaken in the Soviet people an acute sense of dissatisfaction, discontent with the existing state of affairs and on this basis to discredit the system of government in the USSR and incite dissent;
(b) by giving moral support to dissidents in the Soviet Union, providing them with false information and promoting anti-Soviet arguments, the radio stations seek to enlist the sympathy of broad circles in the West for them and thus exert influence on public opinion in the USSR in ways which run counter to its national interests;
(c) by saturating their programmes with the summaries or verbatim reports of statements made by opponents of the economic and political system in the USSR, the radio stations infringe upon the sovereign right of the Soviet authorities to determine their own domestic policy.
The American radio stations address their subversive propaganda not to the Soviet people, who reject them and would not listen to them, but to a negligible and alien group of dissidents. The so-called "civil rights movement" in the USSR was not generated in the course of social development or by any essential needs but was conceived by US intelligence 71 experts at Langley and inspired by outside efforts for purposes hostile to the Soviet Union.
The Russian language services of Radio Liberty and the Voice of America speak put against the internationalist friendship and unity of the Soviet peoples and endeavour to sow the seeds of national discord, alienation and enmity under the cover of appeals for national identity, independence and sovereignty.
The prevalence, for instance, of topics concerning the Soviet Union, especially domestic matters, in the programmes of Radio Liberty and the Voice of America, prepared and presented with the help of emigres, turncoats, defectors, renegades, war criminals and other ``experts'' hostile to the Soviet Union, proves the deliberate intention of the programme-writers to make the fullest possible use of the opportunities offered by radio broadcasting to undermine the unity of Soviet society and discredit the Soviet social system. This is the purpose, for instance, of programmes about socalled dissidents, the "persecution of Jews", discrimination against believers and other slanderous reports about the alleged violation of human rights in the Soviet Union. This manner of broadcasting is especially typical of Radio Liberty.
This has been confirmed, in particular, by a report to Congress of the General Accounting Office dated March 2, 1981, which stated that the station's monitoring department recorded in 1979 alone 335 instances when its broadcasts contained false information; provocative statements, appeals for desertion, downright slander and scandalous rumours. The GAO prepared memoranda for the US Administration on the basis of these facts, one of which, for instance, described the tone of a certain programme as instigative. Radio Liberty continued to broadcast the same kind of ``information'' in the years following, especially after Reagan's advent to the White House.
Of late the broadcasters of Radio Liberty, acting in accordance with the recommendations and instructions of the US special services, have been increasingly provocative in their insinuations, openly instigating listeners to violate Soviet law.
For example, on May 5, 1983, a Radio Liberty programme in Ukrainian incited Soviet citizens to perform religious rites in public places, where they would interfere with the normal pace of life and inconvenience the majority of people contrary to Soviet laws which limit the performance of religious rites to their appropriate places such as churches, chapels, temples, etc.
72In its coverage of events in Afghanistan, the Voice of America spreads misinformation by way of false "on-the-spot reporting". For instance, Robert Fisk, a correspondent of the Times (London), while reporting from Kabul in February 1980, heard a VOA broadcast from Washington, D.C. The announcer said that fierce fighting was going on at the Bela Hissar Fort in the centre of Kabul where Afghan soldiers were in conflict with Soviet troops. Fisk, with a clear view of the area from his hillside hotel balcony, saw this scene: "...there was no smoke or fire, no sound of car horns from the city's traffic. Nor was there fighting. The Bela Hissar was peaceful. There were no Soviet troops to be seen and the Afghan army was evidenced only by a soldier drinking tea in the main street... Not to put too fine a point on it, the Voice of America was talking rubbish.''^^20^^
Nevertheless, the Reagan Administration and the Board for International Broadcasting think that the radio propaganda conducted by Radio Liberty against the peoples of the Soviet Union is not sufficiently aggressive, hard-hitting and insistent.
[73] __NUMERIC_LVL1__ Chapter V __ALPHA_LVL1__ The Role of RadioWestern radio stations play a specific role in-the secret operations carried out by NATO's special services against socialist countries. Recent history has proved this more than once, relevant examples ranging from the instigative propaganda campaign during the counter-revolutionary events in Hungary in 1956 and the extensive brainwashing of the population during the so-called "Prague spring" to the present-day interference by radio in Poland's affairs and the establishment of Radio Marti in order to instigate antigovernment activities in Cuba. The subversive activity of Western radio stations is intensified during social complications in one or another non-capitalist country, but this does not mean that secret operations are conducted by radio only during such periods. All radio broadcasting to other countries is intended to cause all kinds of complications in Eastern Europe, promote the aggravation of the political conditions within those countries and bring them to a crisis point.
``Special activities," says the new CIA manual approved by President Reagan in 1983, "means activities conducted in support of national foreign policy objectives abroad which are planned and executed so that the role of the United States Government is not apparent or acknowledged publicly..."1 This is what intelligence services refer to as covert use of force and persuasion to attain certain political and economic ends, 74 i.e., secret activity for the purpose of influencing foreign governments, events, organizations or persons to gain support for US foreign policy. It includes political and propaganda programmes designed to exert influence upon, or give support to, foreign political parties, groups and political or military leaders; programmes for economic actions; paramilitary operations, and certain counter-insurgency programmes. "Covert or special activities" also mean the use by Western intelligence of specially collected information in order to penetrate and manipulate government bodies in a given East European country (as well as in states which are friendly or allied with it) by means of armed force and political parties, special services, trade unions, youth and student organizations, cultural and professional societies and certainly by the mass media, including radio and television.
The arsenal of subversive propaganda includes radio broadcasts, anonymous publications, the concoction of falsehoods and subsidizing publishing agencies, slanderous allegations by displaced persons or defectors, the launching of air balloons and use of other means of delivering "illegal literature''.
In accusing the East European countries of what is in fact the desired objective of the imperialist camp---attainment of world domination at any cost and by any means---the external political propaganda machine of the West justifies its own military preparations, the barbarous actions taken against Grenada and Nicaragua and its interference in the internal affairs of the socialist states, particularly through external radio broadcasting. The West has employed these tactics when it fomented counter-revolutionary activities in Hungary in 1956, when it launched a massive ideological offensive against Czechoslovakia in the spring of 1968, and when (as is now the case) provoking anti-government actions in Poland.
A person with some degree of familiarity with international
politics finds nothing surprising in the views of Walter
Steigner, former director of the Deutsche Welle station, who
was for ever instructing his staff that they should implant their
ideas with all the means available, neglecting neither cunning
psychological devices nor friendliness and sympathy for those
they actually hate. These instructions came from a man who
had begun his career in the propaganda section of the
Hitlerjugend organization, who continued it in propaganda
company No. 501 which acted under orders of the
75
__CAPTION__
RFE employees sending letters and literature abroad, encouraging
people to rebel against their lawful government.
Gobbels department and was attached to the Wehrmacht's 18th
Army which had displayed great viciousness in
suppressing the civilian population in the Pskov Region of the
Soviet Union.
Another authority, an all-American figure. General William 76 Donovan nicknamed "Wild Bill Donovan", head of the Office of Strategic Services which was succeeded by the CIA, once stated quite frankly that external propaganda is a skilfully prepared mixture of rumours and deceit where truth is only the bait, all being used to undermine unity and sow confusion. According to Donovan, propaganda is essentially the spearhead of initial penetration, preparation of the population of a territory chosen for invasion. This first step is followed by'the activities of the "fifth column", then come the ``rangers'', or ``commandos'', to be finally followed by divisions of invading troops.
This scenario was precisely followed during the 1956 events in Hungary. Extensive subversive broadcasting to Hungary by officially recognized stations was supported by underground stations abroad sowing confusion and inciting rebellion; gangs of nationalist thugs were secretly landed in the country, the "fifth column" went on a rampage, then came killings, resistance to, and various actions against, government authorities. These actions were encouraged from abroad.
For example, Radio Free Europe formed special propaganda teams provided with mobile radio stations to be sent to the Hungarian People's Republic, some of which were landed in Hungary in the autumn of 1 956. Radio Free Europe also launched a vigorous propaganda campaign to incite an armed uprising.
Few people know that the hands of the former director of Radio Liberty, George Bailey, an American of Hungarian extraction, are stained with people's blood, including that of Hungarians. Bailey arrived in Hungary when the counterrevolution was at its height with a "Red Cross" train from Austria, which carried, instead of medical supplies, weapons and radio transmitters for the counter-revolutionaries. In the city of Mosonmagyarovar he joined the gangs of the so-called "Blue Division" which has launched acts of terror against the representatives of the legitimate government and fought against the Soviet military units stationed in the country. On one occasion the ``blue'' cutthroats captured a Junior Sergeant of the Soviet Army. He was Albert Vazoryan, an Armenian. George Bailey, who knew Russian, offered to interrogate the wounded prisoner.
The results of the interrogation shocked the representatives
of the Hungarian revolutionary forces when they found
Vazoryan's body several days later. The 20-year-old youth had
been subjected to savage torture: his eyes had been gouged
[77]
__CAPTION__
The title page and parts of a "strictly confidential" document entitled
"RFE Objectives". According to the document, one of the principal
RFE objectives is to "retard and potentially reverse the communist
programmes drafted for the building of socialism''.
out, his ears removed and his tongue cut out, and on his back
the brutal captors cut out a five-pointed star after the fashion
of Nazi butchers.
The counter-revolutionary uprising was put down by the joint actions of the Hungarian revolutionary forces and Soviet 78 Army units. Bailey, who fled to Austria before the uprising ended, is now endeavouring to sell the values of "American democracy" to other peoples.
Scenarios similar to the recipes prescribed by "Wild Bill" can also be found in the American instructions to RFE/RL on launching a propaganda campaign which led to the events of 1968 in Czechoslovakia. The document "Radio Free Europe Objectives" marked "Strictly Confidential" is dated September 1963. Later on, the Polish-language magazine Kultura which is published in Paris had good reason to call that year "an introduction to the Prague spring of 1968" in its interview with JiFi Pelikan, former Director-General of Czechoslovak television. A comparison of RFE's objectives laid down by the CIA with Ivan Svitak's philosophy, the economic `` experiments'' of Ota Sik, the "new model of socialism" and finally with the activity of Pelikan himself clearly shows who inspired the reaction in Czechoslovakia.
An abridged text of the document "Radio Free Europe Objectives" is given below.
Strictly Confidential
INTRODUCTION
The basic premise which underlies Free Europe Committee policy is ... the achievement of freedom in Eastern Europe....
By expanding the present limits of internal autonomy, the changes in prospect can certainly retard and potentially reverse the communist programmes drafted for the 'building of socialism'.
This view of a general trend in the satellite area and of the hope which it represents for the future is based on the following theses:...
While the formal bases of communist rule remain untouched, qualitative changes in methods of communist rule, of the kind which have been taking place, permit dissident groups to gain bargaining strength and dilute the authority of the party's central organs....
In the light of official Western policy, the most realistic objectives and the most aggressive lines which Free Europe Committee can pursue in the struggle for the freedom and selfdetermination of the East European peoples are those prescribed herein....
79I. TARGET AREA
A. Diffusion of Power; Party Factionalism, Objectives
1. Fortify in all audiences a sense of national identity and purpose, stimulating thereby pressures toward national independence and government with the consent of the governed.
2. Exacerbate factionalism within the ruling parties; whenever feasible, weaken the forces of dogmatism and strengthen revisionist elements.
3. Promote the diffusion of power away from the central party apparatus (and, where appropriate, the security police) to centres where revisionist and non-communist dissidents are present...
Assumptions
1. Factionalism divides the ruling party; diffusion of power multiplies the centres of decision-making. The resultant weakness at the top inspires confidence in elites and the people at large that pressures for reform can be successful.
2. The existence of factions presents elites and the people with possibilities of choice between alternatives in leadership and policies and thus undermines authoritarianism.
3. In the absence of energetic Western government policies with respect to East Europe, and pending more radical changes internally, revisionist factions represent significant instruments (whether conscious or unconscious) to be influenced to contribute to the realization of interim Western aims.
B. National Economies; COMECON Objectives
1. Encourage the formulation of economic pojicies based on true national needs and the people's material well-being rather than on party dogma and political factors involved in the idea of a "socialist camp"....
3. Stimulate pressures against the use of national resources and personnel in the interest of Soviet ambitions, either through COMECON or by uneconomic exports to the newly 80 independent countries, with resultant deprivation to the workers who produce this wealth.
4. Encourage popular and elite pressure behind the trends toward expansion of trade and technological relations with the West.
5. Inhibit progress in the development of COMECON by: a. Fostering the conviction that it is an involuntary association that includes regimes of varying instability (e.g., the GDR) and is unlikely to be either efficacious or enduring.^^2^^
The style and vocabulary of the instructions are characteristically forceful and abound in such imperatives as ``fortify'', ``exacerbate'', ``stimulate'', ``inhibit'', ``encourage'', etc., as if they concerned not sovereign nations and states but a new American state or a trust territory. Such is this programme of interference in the internal affairs of socialist countries which, among other things, led to the crisis developments in Czechoslovakia in 1968. As the events drew nearer the directives of the US Administration grew more demanding and all the links of the state apparatus of the United States and its allies became increasingly involved in destabilizing the situation in the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic.
The radio aggression launched at the time against the people of Czechoslovakia was a dismal failure, but have the appropriate conclusions been drawn from events in Czechoslovakia in Washington, London, Munich or Cologne? Has the radio warfare against Eastern Europe ceased? The available documents testify that the West has not given up the idea of destabilizing the socialist system of government, including that in Czechoslovakia, by means of radio broadcasting. An example can be found in the minutes of a meeting held at the Czechoslovak service of Radio Free Europe on January 14,1972.^^3^^
The first item in the list of charges that could be preferred in an ``indictment'' against the United States for the instigation of the "Polish events" is a secret document of the US Information Agency (then International Communication Agency), entitled "Country Plan Proposal---Poland", which contained a programme of subversive activities against Poland for 1979-1980. The plan was made public in two articles printed by the Austrian newspaper Volksstimme in October 1982. Though the document was drawn up under the Carter Administration, it was the Reagan team which took it over and began enthusiastically to implement. A summary of the Volksstimme __PARAGRAPH_PAUSE__ [81]
__CAPTION__ A "strictly confidential" document devoted to means of influencingCZECHOSLOVAK BROAPCAST ANALYSIS KEETtKC OF 11 JWPAjtlf 187?
Present: Messrs Sellus, Cook, Pean* Slbot, Kohak, PcchaceK, Reed, Walter
Topic:
Czechoslovak BD's approach to the pre-
election campaign and "to post-election developments ~
Reporting; Hugh &t Elbot, Broadcast Analyst
Mr. Elbot stated that he would not describe what BO said in individual programs, nor would he present any quantitative statistics to avoid duplication of written reports. He would outline jaajor trends, themes, and audiences approached and, since the purpose of broadcast analysis meetings is to improve; programs, he would also outline possible shortcomings and omissions as seen from a point of view that is necessarily -. subjective in the absence of any specific guidance and instructions on the subject.
Mr. Elbot said that BD began watching the domestic election campaign systematically in early October with emphasis on the history of elections in the interwar CSR and in the postwar period up to the 196** elections. BD correctly pointed out that the present election slogan "Let us work for future happiness" seems to be the same as in ISC'* and noted the -identity of Kusak's and Hcvotny's election pledges for the future. It also noted that the eoiraiunist IS'iB elections had conceded the existence of 1,500,000 dissenters.
Hr. Elbot mentioned two other major themes used in the preelection period: "Why hold elections at all, since the whole thiftg has been fixed in accordance with Moscow's wishes?" and "All this propaganda is designed to combat the voters' apathy," which was occasionally presented in satirical forst. Programs in October were addressed to general audiences i except for^^1^^ a few programs addressed to youth where the regime's ``concessions'' to youth were exposed for what they were worth,
Hr. Elbot suggested that pre-WWII and post~WWII CS elections wight have been desribed in interview form by those who were there, since eyewitness descriptions of genuine elections wight serve as an ``cye-opener''-^especially -or youth. Mr. Elbot also regretted'that the Dutch, Danish and'Sresers elections wex*e not used to describe in interview for,?, the mechanics of free elections unknown to a major part of the CS electorate.
STWCTLY.CONFMHNTIAL
It was a secret USIA circular, dated 1979, which contained the "Country Plan Proposal---Poland", a programme of ideological subversion against that particular country for the 1979/80 fiscal year. Along with general philosophizing about the situation in Poland, it contained lists of institutions and individuals that should be ``thanked'', i.e., given sums of money. In some cases the amount of ``gratitude'' expressed in dollars is specified. For instance:
2,750 dollars for B.G., deputy mayor of the city of K.;
2,750 dollars for J.S., mayor of the city of S.;
2,750 dollars for B.S., information department of the PUWP Central Committee. (The document mentions full names, of course.)
The amounts are more substantial in the case of such institutions as Pittsburg State University---for an exchange programme with Cracow's Academy of Economics (15,000 dollars), or John Hopkins University---for an exchange programme with Cracow's Jagiellonian University (8,000 dollars).
Chapter 3 of the document points out what needs to be done to wrest Poland from the socialist camp and ensure its ``independent'' position. It is also pointed out that the accords reached in Helsinki created favourable conditions for launching an offensive...
One section of the document says, in particular:
``Let us consider the possibility of inviting a group of Polish journalists to Brussels, Paris, maybe even Naples to provide them with information about the European Economic Community, possibly even about NATO. We would like this matter to be discussed with colleagues from the embassies of NATO countries. It could probably be possible to collaborate with one or another embassy for purposes of implementing the project without the direct participation of the embassies as such...''
The intention was, of course, to tear Poland away from the socialist camp and destroy its socialist system of government. The circular sets out in detail the positive and negative points to be taken into account by the United States.
The list of advantages includes:
``intense Polish nationalism";
``historically evolved Western orientation, including the important role of the Catholic Church;
``historical links with the USA reflected above all in the existence of a large Polish community in the United States.''
83The disadvantages for the United States include:
``the fact that Poland is tied to the USSR and other communist states through the Warsaw Treaty and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance";
``even more confirmed opponents of the regime admit that no alternative to communism can be found so long as the USSR maintains its present might...''
Then the general policy of conducting subversive activity is expounded. Contacts should be strengthened at all levels in cultural life, through universities, "independent intellectuals", the mass media, etc. The following advice is given with regard to international politics: "Let us encourage Poles to get acquainted with the American forms of economic policy" and "let us encourage the Polish leaders to find a moderate and reasonable form of practices deviating from the dogmas..." And finally, one more good piece of advice: "Let us help internal liberalization ... and the growth of pluralism.''
As we know, the counter-revolution which dared to fight in the open was defeated. But we still remember the photographs of "Christian trade-unionists" who brought to ``Solidarity'' large parcels with cash. We remember the AFL-CIO leaders who were jubilantly welcomed in Gdansk and who showed concern for everything, from rotary presses, newsprint and clandestine radio transmitters to the exact sum in dollars to be passed on to voluntary agents of ``Solidarity''. But the working people of Poland understood that the policy of strikes and confrontations led nowhere, least of all to a higher standard of living.^^4^^
As prescribed by the "Plan Proposal", foreign currency was handed over to ``Solidarity'' activists during their visits abroad and also through couriers. For example. Lech Walesa received 120,000 dollars from a Paris representative of the AFL-CIO during his trip to France. Another ``Solidarity'' leader, Zbigniew Bujak, received 20,000 marks in Federal Germany in addition to other donations in cash. A Swiss trade-union centre handed over to the ``Solidarity'' leadership 120,000 marks, while 50,000 kronen was received from Denmark. The US tradeunion association AFL-CIO, which is known to the whole world for its active auxiliary services to the CIA (some Western politicians have even suggested that the second part of the acronym---CIO---be replaced with the more fitting ``CIA'' because of these activities), passed to ``Solidarity'' as a gift 25,000 dollars back in 1980 and subsequently transferred to ``Solidarity'' the following sums: 125,000 dollars, 25,000 dollars, 50,000 and 140,000 dollars; it also 84 collected for ``Solidarity'' a further three million dollars.
The scope of the material aid given to ``Solidarity'' by the West in the form of illegal deliveries of printing, copying and other office equipment is known only in general outline. But it is a proven fact that ``Solidarity'' received in this way, among other things, 104 duplicators, 22 photostat units, 12 offset presses, 17 Xerox machines, 57 typewriters, various printing, xerographic and photographic materials, and five motor vehicles. Ready for shipment from Britain were nine printing presses complete with spare parts, weighing nine tons. An agreement was signed in November 1981 with the West German trade-union centre Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund on the construction of "Solidarity`s'' own radio station and television centre. This West German trade-union centre also offered technical assistance and gave 100,000 marks for the needs of the Polish trade-union association.^^5^^
``Solidarity" members currently abroad continue their traditional cooperation with the Paris-based magazine Kultura as well as with the Voice of America and Radio Free Europe and take part in various subversive propaganda activities. Jerzy Giedroyc, the head of Kultura, has spoken with remarkable frankness about the aims of the political opposition in organizing such activities. It is necessary, in his view, to prevent at any cost the improvement of the economic situation in Poland in order that "the hungry public" should fight the government with greater determination. An inveterate enemy of People's Poland, who was showered with gratitude in 1981 for his activity by the managing board of ``Mazowsze'', one of "Solidarity`s'' regional branches, Giedroyc is clamouring for the organizing of a movement of armed resistance in Poland and for "starting a civil war in Poland which would set off a third world war at US initiative". He insists that "the only way out is a bloody massacre of the communists''.
Other charges that could be preferred in the ``indictment'' against US interference in Poland's internal affairs are the facts supplied by competent Polish agencies about the subversive secret activities of the CIA and NATO's special services on the country's territory. The activities of the internal and external enemies of People's Poland are known to be closely linked. The internal opposition would have ceased to exist by now without the West's aid and support. The activity of the Western special services which is unprecedented in scope and that of the semi-legal and illegal opposition, and later of underground elements within the country, have always had many points of contact and been obviously coordinated.
85The NATO intelligence services study and instruct the Polish underground elements, help them get financial and technical aid from the West and establish contacts with subversive radio stations, in particular with Radio Free Europe, as well as with the Paris-based Kultura magazine and other organs of the press in the West, and with other centres of ideological sabotage, and arrange the illegal shipment of subversive publications to Poland. The intelligence services often use as go-betweens scientific and cultural institutions in the West as well as genuine and non-existent trade-union centres. An intelligence station may be concealed behind an innocent-looking or very respectable front of a foundation or organization.
Here are some examples. In March 1981 the Polish counter-intelligence service apprehended Ms. Leslie Sternberg, a third secretary of the US Embassy in Warsaw. She had in her car materials belonging to the illegal Confederation of Independent Poland (CIP), some of which were typed on the official stationery of the US Embassy. Michael Anderson, a second secretary at the Embassy, was apprehended while receiving from a functionary of the Committee for Defence of Workers (CDW) documents compromising Poland and addressed to the Madrid Meeting. Also detained were second secretary Peter Berg who engaged in military espionage, particularly in gathering information about the air defence of the Polish People's Republic, and John Zerolis and James Howard, who tried to obtain documents containing Polish state secrets.
Within the first six months of 1981 alone Poland was visited by 220,442 foreigners from Western countries, including almost a thousand journalists. Many so-called ``tourists'' have tried their hand at spying. There was nearly a hundred such "amateur operators" among the journalists. A certain M. P. Wejsz, who posed as a businessman in Poland, visited various central and local commercial organizations. He established a wide range of contacts and managed to get access to important documents. Wejsz's ``inquisitiveness'' was stopped in time. The captains of Western merchant ships R. Albrecht, E. Wensel and J. Wagener also carried out spying missions.
On November 4,1981, Leonard Baldyga, chief of the USIA Eastern Europe department and a CIA officer, flew to Warsaw on a special mission. He had worked twice before in Poland as a US representative when he came into close contact with scientists and showed particular interest in journalists and 86 cultural workers, establishing numerous sources of information. The fact that several Warsaw journalists and workers in culture were invited to the reception arranged by the US Embassy on his third arrival showed that Baldyga was again up to something. It can be easily guessed that the purpose of the visit was to encourage the opponents of socialism, and both to instigate and direct the opposition and the so-called underground ``Solidarity''.
The introduction of martial law on December 13, 1981, marked a major change in the position and role of the Western radio stations by considerably limiting the opportunities for other kinds of propaganda interference from abroad. The new measure closed the channels of supply of hostile literature and material aid from the West and restricted personal contacts which had played an important part in coordinating propaganda activities between the anti-communist centres in the West and their partners inside the country. Radio propaganda remained in fact the only means of ideological penetration that continued to function despite the barriers imposed by martial law.
It has already been noted that four radio stations specialize in propaganda against Poland: the American RFE (whose Polish language service has a staff of 75 people), the British Broadcasting Corporation (with 70 staff members in the Polish section), the West German Deutschlandfunk which broadcasts a short programme in Polish, and the Voice of America (which had 17 members on the staff of its Polish service in 1981 and more than 30 in 1982). These stations, especially RFE and the Voice of America, sought to establish cooperation with the leaders of the CPS-CDW (the Committee for Public SelfDefence and the Committee for Defence of Workers) and of the CIP (Confederation of Independent Poland) and with ``Solidarity'' when that trade-union association appeared on the scene. As a result, the radio stations had access to the information they needed and could also coordinate their propaganda activities with the activities of the anti-socialist forces in Poland. Many functionaries of ``Solidarity'' and of the CPS-CDW and CIP were in direct contact with RFE officials.
For example, Jan Rulewski, who made a stopover in London on his way from Japan, took part not only in meetings with British MPs but also in talks with RFE representatives, in particular, with T. Podgorski and K. Robak. Anna Kowalska, a member of the CPS-CDW, met representatives of the BBC's Polish language service to discuss the possibility of the BBC's broadcasting propaganda at the same time as similar actions 87 were being taken by ``Solidarity''. In August 1981 Wieslaw Kecik, a representative of ``Solidarity'' and also a member of the CPS-CDW leadership, visited RFE where he had an important meeting with the radio station's directors and chosen representatives of its Polish language service. On behalf of ``Solidarity'' Kecik submitted for discussion the following points: improvement in the exchange of information between the "trade-union association" and RFE (``Solidarity'' members who went on business trips to the West were required to bring tendentious material they had collected to be handed over to RFE in Munich), the need to ask the United States to increase the power of the RFE transmitters beamed at Poland, and the consolidation of RFE's role as an educational (!) organization for Polish society. He also proposed stepping up propaganda against the Polish Army and extending the activity to increase financial assistance to ``Solidarity''. Barbara Teruhczyk and Bogdan Lis also called at RFE's headquarters in Munich where they were received by Russel Poole, who was then RFE's vicepresident and a high-ranking US intelligence officer, and by head of the Polish service Zygmunt Michalowski (at present RFE's Polish service is headed by Zdzislaw Najder, a CIA agent who was tried in absentia in Poland and sentenced for spying for the United States).
RFE's Polish service specializes in whipping up hatred for the Russians, undermining confidence in the political system of People's Poland, attempting to destroy the system of socialist values, stirring up antagonisms in Polish society, and discrediting the members of the party and state apparatus in the eyes of the public. A great deal of attention is devoted to fomenting mistrust and unrest by spreading all kinds of rumours and gossip and to the organization of various propaganda provocations according to carefully prepared scenarios. The leading motto for the makers of RFE programmes in Polish is: "Fewer commentaries and more instructions!''
For 24 hours a day Radio Free Europe broadcasts programmes in Polish which are mostly instructions for the antigovernment forces and underground elements. The emphasis is on the need to change tactics but not to give up such actions as "strikes, demonstrations and underground publications." Attempts are being made to launch a campaign to create a climate of dissatisfaction, inactivity and apathy, the detonator of public discontent being speculation on the economic difficulties in the Polish People's Republic. Biased and one-sided coverage of events is the hallmark of broadcasts coming from Munich. The manipulation of public opinion in 88 Poland includes broadcasting specially selected and edited statements made by popular persons or figures enjoying moral authority, pronouncements of representatives of the Catholic Church on the socio-political situation in the country or on matters connected with the Pope's visit, etc. Misinforming the Polish public is also carried out with the help of what is called reviews of the ``independent'' Western press from which RFE fishes out only dubious information, sensation or downright lies.
The meaning and purpose of the so-called independent broadcasting by Radio Free Europe is quite clear. It is attempting to break up the integrity of the Polish socialist state by means, in RFE's own words, of an "absolute blockade and boycott of the authorities" and in doing so to engineer a clash between the opponents of socialism and its supporters. It is no accident that RFE continues to report "bitter and fierce fighting in the streets" and the "harshness of the steps taken by the militia and the security service". The broadcasters from RFE's Polish service deliberately use terminology which was current during the Nazi occupation, for instance, such expressions as "round-ups in the streets", "collaborationist journalists", etc. The purpose of this juggling with words is to provoke the citizens to act illegally, spread leaflets and reconstruct the organizational network of the former ``Solidarity''.
The newspaper Zolnierz Wolnosci wrote that "RFE's programmes reveal all too clearly the political cynicism and indifference of those who are hypocritically beating their chests in defending the human and civil rights which are allegedly violated in Poland or condemning the imaginary 'violations by the PPR government of the Helsinki provisions', while in fact they themselves have systematically and for many years violated these provisions in an institutional form.''^^6^^
The same is true of other Western radio stations. Jerzy Urban, the press representative of the Polish Ministry for Foreign Affairs, said at a press conference:
``Before, we didn't put the BBC on the same level as the subversive radio station Radio Free Europe. But the recent broadcasts by the British radio station in Polish, including Adam Michnik's interview on the situation in Poland, show that the BBC is a subversive radio mouthpiece. This means that we are probably far too liberal, and that it is necessary to raise the question before the leadership of the Polish Agency Interpress of the advisability of allowing the BBC's representative in Warsaw to participate in our press conferences.''
Despite the subversive activities of Western radio stations 89 and the "capital investment" into the political opposition in Poland, the West has failed to collect the ``interest''. The situation in the country is gradually being normalized, a patriotic movement of national renewal is gathering strength, which creates a platform for harmony based on the fundamental principles of the social system and the interests of the Polish state.
Poland has stood the test and is now moving faster along the road of socialist renovation.
[90] __NUMERIC_LVL1__ Chapter VI __ALPHA_LVL1__ US and NATO SpecialThe radio stations of the NATO countries are like an iceberg whose visible part is the official mission of broadcasting, the invisible but deeper and more powerful one being covert activity. But both components invariably make an integral whole, one being an extension of the other: broadcasting provides favourable conditions for secret operations the results of which are exploited through radio broadcasting. In the language of the professionals the former is called "studio work" and the latter, "field activity" of the radio stations.
Thus, according to the British press, the BBC has been for many years collaborating with the MI6 (a branch of British Intelligence) which uses the broadcasting corporation and its foreign correspondents' bureaus as cover for intelligence agents. The scandal which erupted in 1976 around the Department of Information and Research of the Foreign Office (in fact a sub-division of MI6, which coordinated the propaganda activities of the British mass media) revealed that the BBC, acting on the instructions of the department, regularly included misinformation into its news bulletins and inserted prearranged call signs and coded messages for MI6 agents overseas in its music and information broadcasts. Letters received by the BBC from listeners abroad were regularly passed on to analysts from the Intelligence Service. But the cooperation between the BBC and MI6 continues to this day in spite of the disgraceful exposures. The only result of the scandal 91 was the renaming of the department as the Foreign News Department of the Foreign Office and a nominal reduction of its staff.
The BBC has a monitoring service to which access is restricted and which operates in close contact with the British and US intelligence and propaganda agencies. The BBC and the Foreign Broadcasting Information Service of the United States exchange information in accordance with a long-term agreement under which the monitoring services of the two countries, and consequently the CIA and MI6, have divided the "air space". The Americans listen in to Asia, the Far East and South America while the British take care of Western and Eastern Europe. The monitoring of radio broadcasts and linkups between aircraft pilots and captains of ships with their bases and of radiotelephone lines in the Middle East region and Africa is done jointly by the two sides. Secret eavesdropping embraces 120 countries, including potential adversaries and allies, non-aligned states and friendly powers. The once immutable rule---"gentlemen do not read other people's letters"---has long been forgotten in the British Isles. The main recipients of the intercepted information are the Pentagon, the State Department, the CIA, the Foreign Office and, of course, MI6.
The United States also has its own centres of global eavesdropping and surveillance, such as the electron surveillance centre at Edzell (Scotland), the top-secret system deployed in Greenland, and the Diogenes station at Sinop (Turkey). Federal Germany, Britain and Italy also have similar facilities designed to collect and analyse military, diplomatic, commercial and other information passing through channels of communication belonging to other states.
The well-known Western journalist Emil Hoffmann wrote in his book Medienfreiheifi ("Are the Mass Media Free?"):
``A special place in the activity of the Western communications media belongs to their links with the secret services which not only supply them with falsified information but also use their services for carrying out their own propaganda activities. The leading role is played by the CIA which has a worldwide network of journalist-agents.''^^1^^
Such ``black'' propaganda focused on Eastern Europe is the special concern of the US government radio stations Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty based in Munich. They are such a typical example of an ``iceberg'' whose top, broadcasting, is merely a cover for extensive spying operations and a justification for the presence of g large number of US intelligence 92 agents at these stations that they deserve more detailed examination.
__*_*_*__The entire history of RFE/RL is one of a series of scandalous exposures. The severest blow to these radio stations and a sensational revelation for the world public were the events in 1971 when Senators Clifford Case, a Republican from New Jersey, and William Fulbright, a Democrat from Arkansas, made public the fact that RFE and RL were a creature of the CIA which financed them on a regular basis.
Senator Case, member of the Senate Appropriations and Foreign Relations Committees, stated that "covert CIA funding of the two stations has been an open secret for years. Both organizations have offices in New York and purport to be privately endowed with funds coming exclusively from foundations, corporations and the public. Both, however, are extremely reticent about the details of their financing." Senator Case noted that both RFE and RL "claim to be nongovernmental organizations sponsored by private contributions". However, "available sources indicate that direct CIA subsidies paid nearly all their costs". In 1970 the CIA provided the stations with 30 million dollars without formal Congressional approval. Senator Case emphasized that Congress had never participated in the authorization of appropriations of funds for RFE/RL, although hundreds of millions of dollars in government funds had been spent during the previous 20 years.^^2^^
In his book, The Crippled Giant. American Foreign Policy and Its Domestic Consequences, Senator Fulbright writes:
``One of the more striking---though ineffectual---survivals of cold-war mentality in our European policy is represented by our so-called `information' programmes directed to Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. For many years 'Radio Free Europe' and 'Radio Liberty' defrauded the American people by pretending to be private organizations relying on private contributions and committed to broadcasting the `truth' to the peoples of Eastern Europe. In fact, the two broadcasters received hundreds of millions of dollars from the Central Intelligence Agency from 1950 until the identity of their secret benefactor became known in 1971. Since then, the two nominally independent propaganda organs have been financed by public appropriated funds....
``Purporting to keep the `truth' alive behind the 'Iron Curtain', Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty are in fact hardy 93 survivors of the old cold-war mentality. If our foreign propaganda activities had anything at all to do with an authentic interest in freedom and truth rather than anti-communism, we would presumably be providing funds for a 'Radio Free Greece' or a 'Radio Free Brazil' (these countries were ruled by dictatorial regimes at the time of writing---Ed.), both countries whose governments impose a degree of censorship. The rationale for Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty, and for much of the official propaganda put forth by the United States Information Agency, derives from the old crusading antiCommunist ideology...''^^3^^
The US Administration, however, did not want to be deprived of the ``unofficial'' voice of RFE/RL broadcasting to Eastern Europe in keeping with official instructions from the United States. The deception of the American people continued, and it continues to this day. Lie No. 1 is that RFE and RL have broken off all relations with the CIA. Lie No. 2 is that the radio stations are subordinated only to the Board for International Broadcasting (BIB) and are financed only by Congress.
The allegation that these radio stations broke off relations with the CIA is constantly repeated in many subsequent documents and publications from the Western press. Here are some typical statements:
``The stations' relationship with the CIA was completely terminated on June 30, 1971 .''^^4^^
Another statement purported that in early 1971 both stations had something like a dozen CIA workers; by the start of July 1971 they had all either left the stations or ceased working for the CIA. Beginning with 1972, the statement further alleged, the only remaining link between the radio stations and the Agency was a two-way exchange of informative material which was open to public scrutiny. The stations received listening-post reviews prepared by the external broadcasting services (as is done by many diplomatic affairs correspondents and private editors), and the CIA ordered research papers prepared by radio stations as is done by US and other governmental institutions, universities, organs of the press and individual scholars.^^5^^
``Both radios once received grants through CIA channels and this has been openly and often stated by American authorities. These grants were switched over to 'public funding'---that is annual appropriations voted by the US Congress---in 1971. The directors of the two stations and leading government officials have stated unequivocally since 94 then that, first, there are no ties whatsoever to the CIA and second, there are no CIA personnel working for, or attached to, the stations.''^^6^^
One more statement claimed that both stations were shaken and demoralized by the publication of the fact that their broadcasts to.Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union were financed by the CIA. They adopted new charters that allegedly put an end to their ties with the Agency and placed them under the authority of a semi-autonomous Board for International Broadcasting in Washington.
Let us consider first the claim that there are no CIA personnel working for, or attached to, RFE/RL. The Western public is familiar with the evidence collected by intelligence officers of socialist countries who penetrated RFE/RL--- Andrzej Czechowicz, Pavel Minarik, Khrisan Khristov and Yuri Marin---which received broad press coverage in the 1970s. Has everything changed and is it all different today, in the 1980s?
One has only to open the RFE/RL telephone directory to find both the previously known names of CIA operatives and those of newly arrived CIA officers and agents.
Here are some of them:
---James L. Buckley, President of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, an old CIA agent nicknamed ``Padre'';
---George Bailey, Director of Radio Liberty, a CIA officer who began his career at the Clandestine Service Division in West Berlin, later represented the CIA on the editorial board of the magazine Kontinenf,
---Gerd von Doemming, a CIA agent working under cover as executive director of the Russian service of Radio Liberty; in October 1982 Doemming was appointed head of a RFE/RL office which opened in Salzburg (Austria) and is officially known as the IBI Press Office and located at Reinerstrasse, 2;
---Jon S. Lodeesen, a graduate of the American intelligence school in Garmisch-Partenkirchen (West Germany); in 1968 he was a second secretary of the US Embassy in Moscow, was declared persona non grata and expelled from the USSR; later he worked at the political department of the NATO headquarters in Brussels; on the staff of RL since 1969; his last post: head of Bailey's office and also the chief coordinator of the division of planning and "programme support" and of the research division;
---Keith Bush, Director of the RL Central Research
Division, was transferred to the radio station in 1963 from the
CIA headquarters, nephew of the US Vice-President, a non--
__PARAGRAPH_PAUSE__
[95]
__CAPTION__
(Kff`UH'ttlii, •' fa
RADIO FREE EUROPE
DMSJGN Of me. EUROPE INC,
CARP
.1 Mav- 1972
The identity card of Pavel Minarik, the Czechoslovak intelligence agent
who worked at Radio Free Europe in the 1970s. The intelligence he
gathered showed that RFE served as the centre for emigre
organizations, and from Munich coordinated their activities against socialist
countries.
__PARAGRAPH_CONT__
staff political instructor at the American intelligence school in
Garmisch-Partenkirchen (West Germany);
---George E. Perry, a CIA agent on the staff of the RL Office of Public Affairs, who maintains close contacts with the American intelligence school in Garmisch-Partenkirchen;
---Robert B. Redlich, Director of RL's Office of Public Affairs, one time head of the American intelligence school at Bad Homburg (West Germany); his chief duties are to maintain contacts with the Deutsch^ Welle radio station, the Western press and CIA agents in the West German mass media;
---Robert Tuck, graduate of the American intelligence school in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, once an intelligence officer of the US Navy, then of the CIA, former head of the Russian language section;
---A. Russell Poole, director of the RFE/RL Administration Division, a prominent CIA agent, oversees the security service;
---Richard H. Cummings, head of the security service, was 96 appointed Director of a RFE/RL branch (1960); in 1971 -1974 worked at the CIA branch at Bad Godesberg; in 1975-1976 was in Teheran where he closely cooperated with Iran's SAVAK; on the staff of RFE/RL since 1980;
---Walter K. Scott, a CIA agent in charge of the secret monitoring division in Oberschleissheim (West Germany);
---Hugh Elbot, a CIA agent supervising the content of RFE/RL broadcasts;
---Isaac Patch, a CIA agent, was in charge of the special projects division of RL (illegal dispatch of subversive literature) until 1968, now a member of the RFE/RL Committee.
Among the more notorious figures on the staff of Radio Free Europe are:
---Zdzislaw Najder, Director of RFE's Polish section and a CIA agent; has been tried by a Polish court (in absentia) and sentenced for spying for the United States;
---Vlad Georgescu, director of RFE's Romanian section and a CIA agent; in 1981 was arrested in Romania for spying for the United States.
And so we could go on. We can name, for instance, Kazimierz Zamorski, Stanislaw Mikitiuk, Ludwig Lubehski and Bogumil Brydak from the Polish section; Jaroslav Pechacek, Slava Volny, Josef Pejskar and Milan Schultz from the Czechoslovak section, and Asen Mandikov, Rumen Traichev, Dimiter Inkiow and Gilda Koeves from the Bulgarian section...
Many years have passed since June 30, 1971, the day when, as Washington assured the public, all links between RFE/RL and the CIA had been severed, but to this day US intelligence officers play the leading role at these radio stations, which confirms the well-known fact that RFE/RL have always been and remain agencies of subversion and espionage. We have in fact mentioned only some of the CIA operatives at the central RFE/RL offices; a look at the lists of the personnel of RFE/RL branches or of the Board for International Broadcasting will be enough to show beyond any doubt that the CIA is in full control, directing the content and nature of their broadcasting and illegal activities in Munich, Paris, Rome, London, Vienna and Brussels.
Before examining the "field work", i.e., the covert spying activity of the radio stations let us take a look at one interesting episode.
In early March 1983 the RFE/RL centre at Munich received some new instructions on pensioning which stressed that the length of service at RFE/RL should include the work at their branches and associated organizations and institutions. Some 97 employees of RL's Russian language service assumed that "associated institutions" should also include the anti-Soviet organization CAPE (Central Association of Political Emigres) which was formed after the war and whose staff members were subsequently merged with the RFE/RL staff. About a dozen of them requested the management to have their record of service in emigre organizations included in their length of service at the radio stations. They insisted that RFE/RL and these emigre organizations were without doubt associated organizations since they had been financed from the same CIA budget.
When Washington rejected the request the ``wronged'' employees took the matter to court. The heads of RFE/RL were very sensitive to the move since the plaintiffs intended to prove, as they were obviously qualified to, that the CAPE and RFE/RL had engaged, under guidance from the CIA, in joint subversive activities against Moscow, the information aspect of RFE/RL broadcasting being of a secondary and incidental nature.
This self-exposure was further proof that ``field'' activity is the radio stations' only raison d'etre, broadcasting being a screen for espionage. Employees of the radio stations are keen to meet all kinds of people from Eastern Europe, be it gullible tourists or new emigres, from whom they buy or otherwise obtain commercial, political, economic or military information about one of the Warsaw Treaty countries. The radio stations have special teams, such as the so-called research division, staffed with CIA officers who sift, sort out and file away the information gathered as a result. Furthermore, RFE/RL have two services for monitoring radio broadcasts and radiotelephone channels, such as the Moscow-Irkutsk, Moscow-Alma Ata, Moscow-Vladivostok and Moscow-Khabarovsk radiotelephone links. Listening in to telephone conversations is prohibited by international law, but the "cloak-and-dagger boys" obviously consider themselves to be above the law or any international rules.
The subversive radio stations keep extensive files with detailed data about prominent people in Eastern Europe, which store away every bit of painstakingly gathered information about party and state leaders, managers and executives in industry, transport and agriculture, scientists, artists, actors, writers, educational workers, clergymen of various faiths, commanding officers in the armed forces and heads of internal security. Each card contains, in addition to the usual biographical data, information about the private life, connections, __PRINTERS_P_97_COMMENT__ 7---928 98 weaknesses, friends and enemies of the "subject of study". Note is also made of whether the person in question expresses the same views both officially and privately and of his or her attitude to the Americans and the Soviet Union. The cards are being constantly fed with new particulars obtained both from overt sources (the press and radio) and from secret reports by informers. The CIA station at RFE/RL systematically employs this information in planning secret operations.
US intelligence officers in Munich study letters from listeners in the East. When the second letter arrives or if the very first message is considered to be sufficiently interesting by the CIA, an appropriate card is added to the files. Letters from people signed with their initials or a fictitious name are examined with particular interest. As a rule, such a listener reveals his identity ve.ry soon, and if he looks promising enough, the CIA checks up on him with the help of a suitable person, such as an American tourist. The CIA also searches for potential collaborators and informers through such false-front organizations as the Intora company in Austria which is an undercover branch of RFE/RL. Its real objectives are hidden behind the innocuous pursuit of studying public opinion and the audibility of radio broadcasts.
One can get a pretty good idea of this aspect of RFE/RL's ``field'' activity from an article printed in the Austrian newspaper Volksstimme, a summary of which is given below.^^7^^
Officially the Intora firm is engaged in studying the market and assessing public opinion. It occupies a new super-modern three-storey building at 52 Hadikgasse, Penzig-Vienna. Its entrance, however, is not situated on Hadikgasse but Gyrowetzgasse, and one generally gets the feeling that the firm is not interested in publicity. Its doors are securely locked day and night and one can pass through them only after extensive explanations through the intercom. Helmut Aigner, the chief of Intora, is keen to assure every visitor that his firm has "a solid financial base" and is engaged in studying public opinion and in market research. It soon transpires, however, that the ``market'' which Intora is investigating consists of people who come to Austria from the socialist countries, while "opinion research" entails fishing for information about the political, economic and military situation in those countries, in short, spying.
``The solid financial base" of which Aigner is so proud is explained by the fact that Intora's principal clients are the subversive spying radio stations Radio Free Europe and the Voice of America, which are in their turn managed and funded 99 by the CIA. For that very reason Intora is not interested in publicity.
Every day Intora sends out as many as 70 agents to hunt for people. They are particularly interested in citizens from Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia. It does not matter whether they come to Austria on holidays or on an official mission, on business or for private reasons. The only necessary conditions are that the people who are questioned should not have left their homeland more than three months earlier and that they intend to return home. The last point is particularly stressed by the chief. The obvious intention is to use these people further for spying purposes on their return home.
Before each questioning for spying purposes the firm's agents must report to their office in person or over the telephone. They dial number 825102 in Vienna and give the place and time of the talk with their ``subject'' and the telephone number by which they can be reached. The report is recorded on tape. This procedure enables Aigner to interfere in any questioning and make it a recruitment deal.
There is particular interest in the questioned person's attitude to RFE, which is sufficient evidence of the extremely close relations between Intora and the American radio station...
The information obtained during questioning is immediately passed on to RFE and consequently to the CIA. This is done quite legally in neutral Austria. Day in and day out. The authorities shut their eyes to the existence of this spying institution and its revolting manhunts. "We repeat in this connection," Volksstimme writes, "that the very fact that such a spying institution exists runs counter to Austria's constant neutrality and the decisions of the Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe.''
The chief of the research office in Vienna, Helmut Aigner, a former commercial traveller, forwards the answers to questionnaires which have been actually received or fabricated to Henry 0. Hart, Director of the East European Area Audience and Opinion Research Division of Radio Free Europe, who has close ties with the CIA. Along with the study of persons questioned for intelligence purposes Hart uses the information obtained as a result to convince US Congressmen of the usefulness and effectiveness of his radio station and of its popularity among the East European nations in order to 100 Emacs-File-stamp: "/home/ysverdlov/leninist.biz/en/1985/AB166/20100128/166.tx" __EMAIL__ webmaster@leninist.biz __OCR__ ABBYY 6 Professional (2010.01.30) __WHERE_PAGE_NUMBERS__ top __FOOTNOTE_MARKER_STYLE__ [*]+ __ENDNOTE_MARKER_STYLE__ [0-9]+ squeeze additional millions of dollars out of the American taxpayers for its maintenance.
The International Literary Association in Italy is a centre for implementing the so-called Project Jackson aimed at flooding the East European countries with subversive literature. Special divisions of RFE/RL, the editorial board of the anti-communist magazine Ku/tura and the emigre "literary institute" headed by former Polish prince Jerzy Giedroyc every day select and send anti-communist brochures, leaflets and books through various clandestine channels to the USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. Special forwarding posts in some West European countries take part in this activity. Illegal literature to Poland has been dispatched from Edinburgh by S. Blaszczyk; from Cologne by A. Chilecki, who was tried in absentia in the Polish People's Republic and sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment for spying; from Stockholm by M. Lisihski; from Geneva by R. Kaczynski; and from Rome by L. Zagorski. This ``literary'' activity is financed by the CIA. US intelligence officers also use the association as a cover for recruiting agents from among citizens of socialist countries who go abroad on business trips or as tourists.
The RFE/RL centre also receives information from the employees of its territorial branches who seek to win the confidence of tourists, students who go abroad on scholarships and people who come to Western Europe from Eastern Europe on official trips, in order to obtain any information that can be of use to the CIA. They often pose as journalists or "emigres eager to meet their countrymen". For instance, Oleg Werbitsky, a staff member of RFE/RL, acting on the Americans' instructions, makes contacts with tourists and other people from Eastern Europe who visit the "Meeting House" in Munich in order to get information from them. Egon Kronsas, an interpreter in the Russian language who is employed by the Siemens A. G. Munchen firm, attends to Soviet specialists during their trips to West Germany. He receives his instructions beforehand from RFE/RL and sends the information gathered during the trips to the management of the radio stations.
Other sources of information are Western journalists
accredited in East European countries and also Western students,
businessmen, scientists and tourists who agree to render one
service or another to RFE/RL. And finally there are the
socalled internal emigres---people who have completely and
utterly severed all ties with their homeland and forgotten that
[101]
__CAPTION__
The CIA has access to the files of the RFE/RL Audience and Opinion
Research Division. With the help of these radio stations the CIA
gathers intelligence and conducts political, military and economic
espionage.
they are Russians, Poles, Czechs or Bulgarians. The material
received from this category of informants is considered by the
CIA to be the most valuable and credible. It is from material of
this kind that the so-called "Samizdat Archive" is made up.
``Samizdat" is one of RL's creations and is used for preparing so-called "scientific studies" which are sent to 570 subscribers, including bodies of the press, government institutions 102 and various Sovietology centres in the West. Some of the ``samizdat'' material has been written by so-called dissidents.
But much of this material can be safely stamped "Made in RL". Since the trickle of rotten information is very meagre and often dries up, the RFE/RL's research division comes up with something of its own making which is passed off as `` samizdat'' material, or signs it with the name of a dissident, or sends a prefabricated ``draft'' in a diplomatic pouch to a foreign correspondent in Moscow, Prague or Warsaw, who then sends it back to RFE/RL as material allegedly coming from sources in those capitals. This is confirmed by statements made by the Soviet journalist Yuri Marin who had worked at RL and by current reports in the Polish press. The manipulation of `` samizdat'' material which had actually been made in Munich was widely practised by the radio station during the events in Poland.
Can one expect objectivity from a ``samizdat'' publication scribbled either by hateful misfits or by CIA professionals from the research division of RFE/RL? And what kind of policy can be pursued by Western leaders who are guided in their appraisal of current events by ``samizdat'' texts or by "learned studies" prepared by RFE/RL?
The CIA regards RFE/RL, besides all else, as the guiding centre of emigre organizations through which it coordinates their subversive activities against the countries of the socialist community. The main objective set by Washington before the emigre groups directed by RFE/RL is to form so-called representative organizations of emigres from Eastern Europe on a nationality basis. The next step would be to integrate such associations into a multinational emigre conglomerate. It was to this end that the "Resistance International" was founded in Paris in May 1983 through the efforts of people such as RL director George Bailey, Eduard Kuznetsov, the head of the RL news division, and the rabid anti-Soviet activist Vladimir Bukpvsky. The fact that Bailey, a high-ranking CIA agent, was participating in this venture clearly showed the renegades abroad who had financed the establishment of the ``International''. The system of measures undertaken to step up the activity of RFE and RL and raise their rank in the hierarchy of US government agencies is also aimed at reinforcing the position enjoyed by the CIA at the radio stations. One such measure is the appointment of more agents from the US special services to leading posts in some national sections and in the analytic and security services. Steps are also being taken to ensure maximum secrecy with regard to the operation of 103 CIA units at RFE/RL. The heads of the CIA consider the main task of its station at RFE/RL to be that of supporting emigre organizations and anti-socialist centres by maintaining regular contacts with prominent dissidents to bring their activity into line with CIA directives, providing them with financial and material support, and supervising the content of radio programmes.
What is the reason for this tender concern for the radio stations in Munich? A rather cynical answer to this question can be found in an article published in the French magazine Le Monde diplomatique in December 1977 which said, in particular:
``It matters little whether Radio Free Europe is funded by American secret services or gets the money from more respectable sources. What matters is that it represents the shock force of Western propaganda in its psychological warfare...''
Two other CIA broadcasting ventures were Radio Free Asia and Free Cuba Radio. The latter, established in the early 1960s, purchased air time for its propaganda broadcasts against the government of Fidel Castro from commercial radio stations in Florida and Louisiana (WMIE and WGBS in Miami, WKWF in Key West and WWL in New Orleans). Other CIA broadcasts were transmitted by a short-wave station, Radio Swan, from a tiny island in the Caribbean. That powerful station, ostensibly operated by a steamship company in New York, could be heard over much of the Western Hemisphere.
Radio Free Asia began broadcasting to mainland China in 1951 from Manila. It was an arm of the Committee for Free Asia which was set up by the CIA as the Eastern counterpart to the Free Europe Committee, and the CIA considered it a match to Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty. The Committee for Free Asia later changed its name to the Asia Foundation which provided cover for CIA operatives and carried out a variety of media-related ventures...^^8^^
The CIA takes an active part in implementing Project Truth masterminded by the USIA. The CIA and other government agencies are required to declassify and place at the USIA's disposal material that can be used in the project. An interdepartmental committee was set up in line with a presidential directive to supervise the project and ensure the satisfactory cooperation of all the agencies engaged in carrying out Project Truth. Charles Wick was appointed the committee's chairman, his deputy being the chairman of an administrative committee in charge of current activities. It should be pointed out in particular that Project Truth is being implemented with the 104 active participation of not only the US special services but also "those in other NATO countries. One ``fruit'' of the joint efforts under Project Truth was the information alleging that the CIA had supplied the State Department with sufficiently detailed data proving that peace movements in West Germany were being financed by the Soviet bloc.
Later on, a report reached the press that the CIA had declined requests for permission to publish that material. The US intelligence agencies and external propaganda bodies have always come up with difficulties with regard to handling the propaganda material disseminated abroad. American journalist John Crewdson who contributed several articles on this subject to 7776 New York Times several years ago wrote in particular:
``The CIA's efforts to mold foreign opinion ranged from tampering with historical documents ... to embellishing and distorting accounts that were otherwise factual ... to outright fabrications ...
``But there is no such mechanism for alerting newspapers, magazines and broadcasting stations in this country as to which of the foreign dispatches that come chattering across their teletypes are distorted or, in a few instances, altogether false. There is, the former officials say, simply no practical way of letting Americans know that some of the stories they read over their morning coffee were written not by a foreign correspondent but by a CIA officer in a corner of some American embassy.
``The CIA accepts, as an unavoidable casualty of its propaganda battles, the fact that some of the news that reaches American readers and viewers is tainted with what the Russians call `disinformation'. The agency has even coined terms to describe the phenomenon: blowback, or replay, or domestic fallout.''^^9^^
The USIA's cooperation with the CIA is by no means limited to activities under Project Truth. Staff members of the USIA and the CIA also work in other subcommittees of the National Security Council and in other interdepartmental committees which conduct psychological warfare operations. CIA operatives use the USIA as a cover. There is known to be close cooperation between the USIA and the CIA in the financing of secret publications.^^10^^
USIA employees collect secret information and obtain data on the attitude of different sections of the population in other countries to Washington's foreign-policy moves. This information is subsequently used for Project Truth. They analyse 105 information and draw up evaluations on the strength of their material for the White House, the State Department and other government institutions. Close attention is paid to the collection of information on public opinion in countries where the agency has its branches. Its surveys contain very valuable information which is then classified.
John Reinhardt, Director of the USIA under President Carter (it was then called International Communication Agency), said during hearings at the Subcommittee on International Operations of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs in 1 979:
``It is through our research operations that we perform our primary advisory role. We are the only organization in the Government which is concerned with the opinion of foreign peoples, as distinguished from their governments.''^^11^^
The USIA's close links with the CIA and other US special services as well as the State Department, the Pentagon and the White House in particular (through personal contact with the President and the Chairman of the Special Planning Group) enable the agency to plan, prepare and implement major propaganda actions in the course of the psychological warfare waged against the socialist countries. It is characteristic of the present US Administration that almost all the anti-communist propaganda campaigns have been initiated personally by President Reagan.
[106] __NUMERIC_LVL1__ Chapter VII __ALPHA_LVL1__ The Radio Centres ofJust before delivering an address which was to be broadcast on the radio in California on August 11,1984, President Reagan, during a studio test recording said something that shocked peaceloving mankind and exposed the White House's policy of military preparations and the grave danger it presents. He said:
``My fellow Americans, I am pleased to tell you today that I've signed legislation that will outlaw Russia forever. We begin bombing in five minutes.''^^1^^
This testifies to the unprecedented aggressiveness of the ruling circles in the United States, of their overweening ambition, of their inability to make a sober assessment of the realities in the nuclear age, in which there is no alternative to peaceful coexistence and the maintenance of peaceful relations between states.
Peaceloving men and women throughout the world have every reason to fear for the future of the world. To understand the real meaning of the blood-chilling ``jokes'' made by the US President, one need only look at the little-known plans of the United States---Single Integrated Operational Plan (SIOP)--- and NATO (Northag Defence Plan), which were drawn up in the 1960s and 1970s, for the unleashing of a third world war.
SIOP, a plan for a nuclear attack on the USSR and the other countries of Eastern Europe, was worked out by the Pentagon in December 1960, when the US nuclear arsenal 107 was increased to 18,000 warheads, and the list of targets for nuclear attacks grew from 3,000 to 20,000.
The plan is called ``single'' because it is the only emergency project that takes into consideration the nuclear arsenals of the three armed services of the United States. It is ``integrated'' because it embraces all other emergency plans for a nuclear attack, plans made by regional US commands in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and in Europe, and also because it involves the nuclear forces belonging to Britain. SIOP is the central and most secret component of the nuclear `` intimidation'' plan of the West.
Over the last 20 years SIOP has undergone several modifications and the latest military plan of the 1980s that we know of---SIOP-5D---envisages 40,000 strikes at targets not only in the Warsaw Treaty countries, but also in countries allied to Washington as well as in neutral countries: the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Finland, Italy, Austria, Sweden and Norway. The US President can choose from four types of attack: total, selective, limited and regional nuclear attack. The plan makes no mention about sparing the cities and civilian populations or about hitting only military ``enemy'' targets. The Pentagon has no scruples whatsoever. In its present form SIOP-5D leaves the US President only one possibility---an allout attack, i.e., the simultaneous launching of more than a thousand missiles targeted on the Warsaw Treaty countries.
NATO has made a detailed Northag (Northern Army Group) Defence Plan, which provides for a first nuclear strike in the event of "any type" of armed conflict in Europe. The documents entitled "Summary of the Northag Defence Plan 79 (69)" and "Northag (CTS) 145 N/68" lay down the basic principles of the US strategy both for ``limited'' and ``major'' wars which can allegedly be won. Their content shows beyond any doubt that NATO, far from being a defence organization, is a military-political bloc designed for the preparation and conduct of nuclear war, and an offensive war at that.
The Northag Defence Plan says:
``It is clear that one cannot hope to withstand a major enemy attack for any length of time without recourse to nuclear weapons and the most important assumption has always been that SACEUR would authorize the release of nuclear weapons shortly after the enemy has crossed the Demarcation Line in strength.''^^2^^
As we can see, there is not even a hint here that the Western allies would undertake political consultations or seek 108 approval of their actions from Congress, from Parliament, or from the Bundestag before sanctioning ``R-Hour'' (the moment at which missiles with nuclear warheads would be launched). It is quite obvious that it would be up to the NATO generals to decide on the feasibility of launching a nuclear strike. What is more, such a decision will be made by a US Army general I
It appears that the NATO leaders have resigned themselves in advance to the thought of future victims, having invented a treacherous and self-justifying term "vulnerable zones", meaning sectors of territory which may be captured by the enemy. These include raw-material sources, industrial centres, dikes, lines of communication, aerodromes, warhead and chemical weapon depots, and port installations. These all are targets in Europe subject to be destroyed by nuclear strikes, the strikes to be sanctioned and launched by the North Atlantic Command. According to the document "Northag (CTS) 145 N/68," such major cities as Hamburg, Bremen, Hannover and Gottingen, and dozens of smaller ones such as Braunschweig, Salzgitter and Bremerhaven will be subject to a Western nuclear bombing on the very first day of a military conflict in Europe. The inhabitants of these cities are unlucky: they live in "vulnerable zones" and must therefore be wiped out under the Northag Defence Plan. Such a project could have been thought up by the sick minds of suicidal maniacs.
The NATO documents do not contain the names of those responsible for the Northag Defence Plan. They are in all probability colleagues of the authors of suicide plans who had drawn up the Single Integrated Operational Plan and whose names can be found in the booklet US Secret Plans to Exterminate Europe, which was published in Cyprus in 1983. The public in Western Europe must know the warmongers who have prepared a horrible future for them---to vanish in a nuclear holocaust. Here they are, the sinister gravediggers of Western Europe:
---B. E. Spivy, Major General, US Army Director, J-3 Division;
---J. P. McConnell, General, US Air Force, Deputy Commander in Chief;
---Charles B. Boswell, Colonel, US Army;
---Royal R. Taylor, Colonel, US Army, Director, J-3 Division;
---Robert R. Dickey III, Major, US Marine Corps, Director, J-2 Division;
---Michaelis, Lt.-Gen.;
109---Freeman, General;
---Doleman, DCSOPS;
---Bernard C. Hughes, Colonel, US Army, Chief, Plans Division;
---O.W.Williams (PR);
---L. F. Ayers.
We may also include here the names of those who are collaborating in preparing the suicide of Western Europe: Alois Mertes (Christian Democratic Union---CDU); Jiirgen Mollemann (Free Democratic Party---FDP); Peter H. Boenisch, former editor of Springer's Bild Zeitung; and Axel Springer, the "king of the West German press" himself, who has long been associated with the military-industrial complex of the Federal Republic of Germany.
We repeat, the public in the West must know the names of the fanatics who are dreaming of revising, with the help of nuclear and conventional weapons, the existing borders in Europe and of establishing on the continent their long-desired "new order". History knows of many such attempts, and we know how they ended. It is dreadful to imagine that this catastrophe is being prepared by the West Europeans themselves with the support and under the supervision of their overseas partner.
What role has been assigned to the radio centres of the West in the militarist plans of Washington and NATO? What will the Voice of America, the BBC, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe or Radio Liberty and their branches broadcast in the event of the implementation of SIOP-5D or of the Northag Defence Plan, or, as the US Army generals put it, on the eve and during the "outbreak of hostilities in Europe"? Western journalists will find it easier to get an answer to this question at the headquarters of NATO's information-propaganda service in Evere (Belgium), where there are accredited representatives of all the radio stations of the North Atlantic Alliance countries, broadcasting to Eastern Europe, including Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty. (Washington more than once persuaded its European partners to regard the Munich radio centres and their branches as NATO's ideological mouthpiece operating in permanent contact with its respective bodies and entirely in the interests of the Alliance. The reason lies not only in the nature of the broadcasting, but also in Radio Free Europe's illegal channels through which it obtains political and military information, which supplement the intelligence potential of the Allies.)
It is a permanent function of the headquarters of NATO's 110 information-propaganda service in Evere to brief and instruct radio journalists and to distribute prepared material for broadcasting to Eastern Europe. While day-to-day work continues, the plans for using the radio centres and other propaganda machines in the event of an emergency lie in the safes of the NATO strategists under top secret seals. Let us try to shed some light on this aspect of the matter.
The document "Northag (CTS) 145 N/68" regards the radio centres as a system for warning the people in the West in case of war danger, and as an instrument for the psychological indoctrination of the population on enemy territory.
On the other hand, the Northag Defence Plan provides for the transmission by certain radio centres of such programmes as would make it possible to blame the enemy for provoking a first strike and for the entire conflict; that is to say, it stipulates extensive "psychological warfare". By order of the Pentagon or NATO's military command, in an emergency the Western radio centres must send special "shock transmissions" to the enemy audience. These are programmes designed to bring about the sharp aggravation of social contradictions in the socialist countries, to create panic, to intensify discontent among the population with government institutions, and openly to compromise political and public figures in East European states. In such an event all the transmitters of, say. Radio Free Europe in Munich and Spain will be switched on at full power; if this is inadequate, the Voice of America and even Pentagon transmitters will be linked up with those in Munich in order to launch a propaganda barrage, a kind of "artillery preparation" before the commencement of military operations, an all-out psychological war.
``Psychological war", as we have already mentioned, is an invention of the West. To conduct such a war the US ruling clique has created a gigantic propaganda machine and centralized propaganda for dissemination abroad. Apart from government institutions, this ``war'' involves the US secret services and the Pentagon. According to the Western press, the CIA exerts influence on more than 800 various media, and the Pentagon on up to 300 radio and television stations all over the world.
In the NATO countries special roles in the conduct of psychological war are assigned to the secret services and intelligence-gathering agencies, which are always directly involved in the preparation and unleashing of local wars of aggression; they interfere in the internal affairs of sovereign states (Chile, Grenada, Nicaragua), and carry out 111 psychological operations of a strategic and tactical nature. Such operations are considered by the NATO leadership to be an important means of influencing the morale of the enemy armed forces and population "for the purpose of demoralization and promoting the fulfilment of the tasks set by the military command''.
As an illustration we can cite an extract from the USA's Single Integrated Operational Plan (SIOP) (Annex L to Operations Plan NR 10-1):
``c. Definitions
``(1) Psychological Operations: includes psychological warfare and, in addition, encompasses those political, military, economic and ideological actions planned and conducted to create in neutral or friendly foreign groups the emotions, attitudes, or behaviour favourable to the achievement of national objectives.
``(2) Psychological Warfare: the planned use of propaganda and other psychological actions having the primary purpose of influencing the opinions, emotions, attitudes, and behaviour of hostile foreign groups in such a way as to support the achievement of national objectives....
``a. Concept of Operations
``Unconventional warfare operations will be initiated in time of war when there are some areas in the Soviet Bloc in which a segment of the indigenous population is susceptible to development of a resistance movement by US military personnel or personnel responsive to US control. The creation of this favourable atmosphere will depend to a great extent upon the degree of success achieved by psychological operations planned, coordinated and conducted by USCINCEUR (US Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces in Europe). Those aspects of psychoJogical operations which support UW^^*^^ are designed to: '
``(a) Convince the people of Soviet Bloc nations of the inevitability of US and Allied military victory....
``(b) Condition the people of Soviet Bloc nations to believe that to accept and to support US Special Forces personnel is action in furtherance of their own idealistic and nationalistic aspirations.
_-_-_^^*^^ "Unconventional warfare"---Ed.
112``(c) Prompt the people of Soviet Bloc nations to take active measures in opposition to control by Soviet and Soviet Bloc dominated governments. Such opposition should be channeled into forms of guerrilla warfare, subversion, formation of dissident groups, etc.''
A study of NATO's plans of operations provides the key to understanding the touching concern which the West has for dissidents, enables us to see why the United States and its Allies need them so much, and explains the feverish activities of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty, which under the pretext of studying their listeners are searching for potential collaborators and for tomorrow's dissidents.
NATO needs dissidents as cannon fodder. We quote:
``(4) The Commander of the Central Intelligence Agency Force, Europe, and Commander of the Support Operations Task Force, Europe, will develop contact with and support dissident elements in the Soviet Bloc areas and secure their assistance in acts of sabotage and insurgency in order to degrade enemy military capabilities to oppose allied penetrations.
``(5) ...Satellite populations, if properly prepared, may be favourably disposed toward liberation so that they will, upon the appearance of authentic US and allied military support, rise against the Bloc and assist in the defeat of enemy forces...''
NATO needs the dissidents as ``administrators'' in the Eastern territories that the West will presumably occupy. According to this plan, it will be the duty of the Commanderin-Chief of the US Army in Europe to "establish contact with persons identified as sympathetic to the West and known to have governmental and leadership potential for use in reconstituting administrations friendly and cooperative with the Free World''.
NATO needs dissidents as ordinary spies. We quote from "Annex A to Operations Plan N R 10-1":
``b. The fundamental strategy of UW operations conducted by COMSOTFE is to support SACEUR/USCINCEUR military operations by exploiting the resistance potential in areas dominated, or likely to be overrun, by enemy forces. The UW objectives are to:
``(5) Obtain intelligence information.
``(6) Assist United States sponsored indigenous leaders in establishing control over Soviet Bloc social and political structures. ...''
``d. Activities conducted by indigenous UW elements will 113 be characterized initially by their clandestine nature... Included in these activities are the following: sabotage, covert propaganda; infiltration into enemy installations; planned civil disobedience or non-cooperation; and formation of groups as action nuclei for future guerrilla organizations.
``e. As the situation permits, following the outbreak of hostilities, SFOD's^^*^^ and/or other appropriate UW units, assisted by assets furnished by CIA, will be infiltrated into selected UW operational areas to generate, organize and equip resistance groups and to influence and guide their operations.''
Now one can see why most of the broadcasts transmitted by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Deutsche Welle, the Voice of America and the BBC are addressed to dissidents. It also becomes clear why the United States and its allies are investing such huge sums in the Alliance of Russian Solidarists and other anti-Soviet organizations, and in numerous emigre publications. It is merely for the purpose of keeping the dissidents in the Eastern countries ``afloat'', to cultivate new dissidents as "cannon fodder" who can stab somebody in the back in the interests of the Allied Forces. The Americans have always preferred that someone else should pull the chestnuts out of the fire for them.
To be convinced of this, it is enough to familiarize ourselves with Paragraph 1 of "Appendix 1 to Annex C to COMSOTFE OPLAN NR 10-1. Essential Elements of Information". What are the,CIA and the military intelligence services of the United States, the BND (Bundesnachrichtendienst, or Federal Intelligence Service), and MI6 interested in? For what reason are the spies from the US secret services racking their brains in the offices of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, the Voice of America, the International Literary Association, at US embassies in Eastern Europe, and in international organizations? We quote:
``a. When, where and under what circumstances, including outside sponsorship, are general resistance movements or revolutionary outbreaks likely to occur? How many people may become involved in active resistance? What are their capabilities? What are their probable political orientation and objectives?
``b. What are the strengths, weaknesses, dispositions, and capabilities of security and/or military forces capable of attempting suppression of resistance movements or _-_-_
^^*^^ SFOD---Special Forces Operational Division---Ed.
__PRINTERS_P_113_COMMENT__ 8---928 114 revolutionary outbreaks in areas selected under (1) above? What is the likelihood that these forces, or any segments thereof, might defect or conduct themselves ineffectually in a suppression role? Where will these forces exercise greater or less interference with UW operations?``c. What is the probable reaction of the population of the nation concerned under the various possible circumstances of a resistance movement or revolutionary outbreak? Is external sponsorship likely to effect their reaction?
``d. What will be the Soviet reaction and course of action in the event of resistance movement or revolutionary outbreak? Satellite reactions?
``e. Are there any organized clandestine resistance groups? If so, what and where are they? What is their orientation, affiliations, reliability and potential? Who are the recognized leaders and how can contact be established with them?
``f. What groups by profession or other category are most likely to resist or revolt? What groups are most responsive to Western psychological operations?
``g. What opportunities exist for access by resistance groups to arms, munitions, and other military stores?
``h. What specific items of logistical support would most effectively aid a resistance movement or revolutionary outbreak?...
``j. What areas constitute suitable places of refuge for E & E operations?...''
And so for the CIA employees at the Western radio centres, the most important task in the plans for a third world war is to support emigre organizations at home and anti-socialist centres in the countries of Eastern Europe, to maintain secret and regular contacts with leading dissidents so that their activities are in full conformity with CIA directives and the Single Integrated Operational Plan, and to make an extensive search for, and selection of, unofficial informers among renegades.
What measures are envisaged in NATO's plans as regards Western radio centres and their employees? In the mobilization documents of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty there is a provision to the effect that if broadcasting facilities are inadequate in Munich the spare radio centre in the United States operating under Pentagon control is to be employed. The evacuation of American citizens working at Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty is also provided for in an emergency. How far is such an evacuation possible in a crisis situation, in which European territory is being subjected to suicidal bomb attacks by the Atlantic allies? And what will happen to those 115 radio centre employees who are not US citizens? The mobilization plan drawn up by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty and the duty instructions of the security chief at the Munich radio complex provide the answers to these questions.
According to his duty instructions, Richard H. Cummings, Director of the Security Services Department at Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, is obliged, for example, to preserve materials marked "Special Instructions" (results of the study of suspicious employees, summaries of observations and technical control of personnel, lists of employees at national editorial offices who ought to be interned at once in the event of an armed conflict breaking out in Western Europe).
If the emigres at the national editorial offices have no wish to be interned, the mobilization plan provides for the use of psychotropic weapons against those who resist and try to escape so as to avoid collective death in a "vulnerable area". At NATO headquarters this toxic agent is marked "EA-3167", which means nothing to the uninitiated. This weapon of psychochemical warfare was developed, tested and stored at the Aberdeen testing range in Maryland, USA. Observers have described the effect of the preparation on the human body. It is a colourless, smokeless substance. At first the victims who have breathed it in will not notice anything peculiar. They will feel somewhat strange though: a slight noise in the ears, perspiration, a little shivering. After a while everything around becomes grotesque. They do not merely look at the objects around them, they swim in them. They feel drawn to an open window; Similar victims are in the streets: carelessly dressed people, some naked, wander aimlessly, muttering something. Cars run onto the pavements, knocking over pedestrians. Dozens of people, including policemen, sit in the middle of the street, roaring helplessly with laughter. Others in an ecstasy perform St. Vitus' dance. Everybody outside is caught in a cacophony of mass insanity...
Such is the effect of "EA-3167", one of the psychochemical weapons which has been added to the arsenal of the Pentagon and NATO in the event of a nuclear conflict. The Reagan Administration has allocated 10 million dollars from planned expenditure for the programme to produce chemical weapons, within the framework of which new toxic agents to be used by the CIA in offensive operations are being developed.
There are different scenarios for the use of the psychotropic weapon "EA-3167". It will be used, in particular, in the event of an act of "civil disobedience" at Radio Free Europe/Radio 116 Liberty in order to disorient people and paralyze their will to resist, after which they can be transferred to another city, to a safe village or to a concentration camp. So those who are pacing the corridors of the Munich radio centre, those who are doing their utmost before the microphones to propagate US policy and the Western way of life, are apparently unaware that the architects of that policy have already prepared for them a smokeless toxic agent, that they will be the first victims of a psychotropic war.
In the existing situation the attention of the forces of peace is centred on a task of worldwide significance---to rid mankind of the threat of war, to prevent the forces of aggression from turning our planet into a desert scorched by nuclear conflagration.
[117] __NUMERIC_LVL1__ Chapter VIII __ALPHA_LVL1__ Who Makes SubversivePeople have always been aware that an enterprise which engages in dubious transactions constantly attracts all kinds of villains, shady characters, morally bankrupt individuals---men of doubtful reputation in general. So a scrutiny of those who broadcast to Eastern Europe will help us to see how "humane, just and socially usefull" are the broadcasts of the Western radio centres beamed to countries that have chosen the noncapitalist road of development. And how can these broadcasts be "honest, objective and accurate" if behind them stand morally bankrupt, degraded characters who do not themselves believe in the ideals they preach, and propagate them only because it is a well-paid job?
Apparently the US Administration and official bodies in other NATO countries have reasons for keeping silent about the personal and business qualities of their broadcasters and about their shady past.
For instance, the Director of the United States Information
Agency, Charles Wick, has been a controversial figure almost
from the moment he assumed that post. "The furor over his
secret taping of telephone conversations and the row over an
agency `blacklist' of persons not to be sent abroad as speakers
for the United States are only the latest in a string of
embarrassing episodes involving Wick, a close California friend of
President Reagan's. Previously, he was censured for using
federal funds to finance politically oriented enterprises,
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__CAPTION__
Some of the photographs.
criticized for hiring the relatives of top administration officials and
forced to reimburse the government for money used to install a
security system at his private residence.''^^1^^ This is far from being
a complete list of Wick's misdeeds.
The USIA Director got into the bad books of eighteen members of the House of Representatives who in late 1983 sent to the White House a letter demanding Wick's resignation from his position as Agency Director. To let such a man hold the post of USIA Director, the letter emphasized, would be like appointing an arsonist as a fireman. The reason for sending such a letter was Wick's comments concerning British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. During a tour of San Francisco, Wick declared that the negative stance of official London and, in particular, of Margaret Thatcher, towards the US invasion of Grenada was because the Prime Minister was a woman. It turned out that the blacklisting of USIA employees was accompanied by check-ups on suspicious members of the staff. "Very little was ever committed to paper and officials rarely, if ever, explained to staff the reasons for blacklisting people... In the 135 weeks that the blacklisting continued, 5,000 names were reviewed, and 95 people were barred from the speaking programme.. .^^2^^ The US press noted with irony that the person whose main duty was to build up the prestige of the United States was creating for himself a very dubious reputation. But the Congressmen did not know everything about Wick's swindles or even the crimes he had committed. In its November 1984 issue the magazine Mother Jones^^3^^ carried an article entitled "What the Senate Didn't Know About 119 Charles Z. Wick. How the USIA Chief Ran His Nursing Home Business", written by the American journalists Seth Rosenfeld and Mark Schapiro. The article provides numerous facts and photographs about the inhuman conditions in the so-called "Visalia Convalescent Hospital", which is the private property of Charles Wick. Wick and Co. have profited from human suffering, the article points out, and made more than a million dollars between 1970 and 1983. The stormy political scandal which erupted with Wick being at the centre of it all resulted in a special statement from the United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy, which controls USIA activities. The statement expressed deep anxiety about the fact that Wick's machinations might have an adverse effect on the agency's ability to carry out its mission. "I think it's not an overstatement to say morale is at its lowest,"^^4^^ said Middlebury College President Olin Robinson, who resigned from the Advisory Commission in protest over Wick's secret taping of telephone conversations. The case concerning this taping was investigated by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. During the investigation Wick behaved dishonourably---he lied and denied that he had taped telephone conversations without the consent of all the parties concerned.^^5^^. Wick was expecting a severe ruling by the Commission, but since it was controlled by Republicans, the whole business was soft-pedalled. Nevertheless, under those circumstances Wick could not and should not have continued to head the United States Information Agency. President Reagan, however, took him under his wing. "I do not think that Charles Wick is a dishonourable man in any way,"^^6^^ he said. It was the firm belief of politicians and journalists in Washington that Wick should have resigned of his own free will. But he said he was "absolutely not" going to resign, and that the President had said he was not going to fire him.^^7^^
It is common knowledge in America that the broadcasting centre of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty is located in Munich. But the way of life at the radio station itself, the standards of morality adhered to by the administrative staff and the emigre employees remain a behind-the-scenes affair.
The emigre personnel at Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
represent the outcasts of history and human society; they are
criminals, traitors, scoundrels, political swindlers and other
shady characters. Among them are, for example, Igor
Glazenap, who served with the Nazis, an activist in emigre
monarchist organizations, and Ivan Laponov who was police
chief i-n the occupied village of Gremyachye. Afterwards he
120
__CAPTION__
USIA Director Charles Wick (extreme right) with friends.
joined the SS and was promoted to the rank of officer. In the
spring of 1943 Laponov himself shot Soviet patriots in the
village of Navlya near Bryansk.
Radio Liberty employees Tulyaganov, Pylaev, Dudin, Tsvirko, Menchukov, Tenson---all served in the Gestapo in the past; they tortured and hanged Soviet men and women. Sultan Garif participated in the execution of the poet and anti-fascist Musa Jalil. These criminals implement directives from the United States, engage in the "exchange of information and ideas" on the air, and preach about democracy and "socialism with a human face''.
Let us take a closer look at them:^^8^^
---Shigap Nigmatullovich Nigmatullin, alias Nigmati, alias lozef Aksam-ogly, alias Yusuf-ogly. In 1941, Nigmatullin, a Red Army lieutenant, defected to the Nazis. At first he was sent to the propaganda school of the so-called Eastern Affairs Ministry, which enrolled traitors. After finishing he recruited prisoners, for the same kind of ``studies'', in the camp of Wustrau and Ziethenhorst. Later on he became editor of a nationalist newspaper and was awarded the title of SS Obersturmfuhrer.
121
__CAPTION__
The hall of the RFE building in Gloria, Portugal. Here one can run into
In late 1944 he threw off his Nazi uniform and fled to the western part of Germany; he forged documents for himself and became a free citizen of Turkey under the name of lozefAksam-ogly. He forged ration cards until he was caught and jailed. A former employee of the Nazi Eastern Affairs Ministry who found refuge in the British intelligence service, one Professor Mende, learned about Nigmatullin's predicament and helped him out. In 1949 Aksam-ogly was put on trial for dealing in counterfeit money; in 1 951 he was finally expelled from MI6 for habitual drunkennes and rowdyism.
In Munich he was imprisoned again---for rape. At that time Radio Liberty was in urgent need of an editor for its TatarBashkir section. The Americans got Nigmatullin out of jail and placed him behind an editor's desk...
---On the very first day that the Nazis occupied Kiev, L. Dudin went to the German Commandant's office and offered his services. Because of his denunciations, dozens of Soviet citizens were caught, shot or incarcerated in concentration camps. On the recommendation of SS Obersturmfuhrer Gerhard Meissner, Dudin was appointed department head of the newspaper Novoye ukrainskoye slovo ("New Word in the 122 Ukraine"), and later on editor-in-chief of the weekly Posledniye novosti ("Latest News"). He followed his masters when they fled to the West. Now this war criminal is trying to teach Soviet citizens how to live, telling them all kinds of lies which he passes off as the truth.
---Garanin, whose real name is Sinitsyn, was a village schoolteacher and studied law. In 1942 he surrendered voluntarily to the Germans and became an instructor at the Wustrau camp. With his help, in 1943 the fascists caught and shot dozens of Communists. He tracked down people who listened to radio reports from the Soviet Information Bureau. Afterwards he became procurator in the ``army'' of the traitor Vlasov, who betrayed the Soviet people and collaborated with the Nazis. He arrested hundreds of people who had been forced to join this ``army'' or duped into joining it by Nazi propaganda. At his demand a death sentence was pronounced if there was the slightest suspicion of ``disloyalty''. Garanin subsequently was picked up by the US secret service and installed at Radio Liberty.
---0. Krasovsky, editor at the Russian Service of Radio Liberty. At the beginning of the war he surrendered to the fascists and began to collaborate with them. Very soon he was promoted to one of the top posts at a special military school and made a captain. After the war he became an active member of the so-called Alliance of Russian Solidarists, a diehard anti-Soviet organization nourished by the Nazi secret services. Krasovsky was sent by the Alliance to Hungary in 1956 to establish contact with counter-revolutionary elements and conduct subversive activities among Soviet Army personnel there. At the height of US aggression against Vietnam, Krasovsky was sent to South-East Asia, where he prepared radio broadcasts justifying and extolling the US interventionists.
---V. Tsyganko, who collaborated with the Nazis, is also hiding at Radio Liberty from Soviet justice. After the war the US secret services sent him to Radio Liberty in Munich, where he engaged in recruiting Soviet citizens who came to Western Europe either as tourists or as members of sport and other delegations. During the Olympic Games at Sapporo and in Munich, Tsyganko was included in special groups of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty personnel whose task was to indoctrinate sportsmen from the USSR and other socialist countries with anti-Sovietism.
---K. Yershov defected to the Nazis at the beginning of the war and was recruited by the German army 123 counterintelligence unit "Abwehr-Group-312". His assignment was to pick, from among the Soviet prisoners of war, commanders, Party members and organizers of the underground. In 1943, as a member of a special detachment, he took an active part in punitive operations against partisans in the Nazi-occupied territories of the Baltic republics. He is currently an editor at the Russian Language Service of Radio Liberty.
---I. Gordievsky. Before the Second World War his father, a member of the anti-popular organization of Ukrainian nationalists, passed on intelligence information to the German Consulate in Odessa. The Soviet security service put an end to his spying activities on the eve of the war. The son followed in his father's footsteps. When Odessa was temporarily occupied by the Nazis he defected to them. After the liberation of Odessa he fled to the West and began to work for the US secret services, which placed him in one of the anti-Soviet emigre organizations. Later on he was sent to Radio Liberty under the name of Andrei Kulitsky.
---During the Second World War B. Bernatovich served in the fascist police force and took part in punitive operations. In 1944-1945 he underwent training at a German intelligence school in Austria; afterwards he worked for the US secret services and completed special courses for radio operators in the Federal Republic of Germany. He now works for Radio Liberty's broadcast monitoring section.
---Avtorkhanov-Kunta, alias Alexandrov, alias Professor Temirov, who deserted from the Red Army during the Second World War and published on occupied territory a newspaper with the motto "Allah is above us, Hitler is here with us". Afterwards he joined the Gestapo.
---V. Yurasov, alias Rudolf, alias Zabinski, was sentenced by a Soviet court to eight years' imprisonment for a criminal offence. He escaped from prison and changed his name, joined a fascist punitive force, and participated in the execution of Soviet patriots. He has published a book entitled Parallax, in which he calls for nothing more or less than a war against the USSR.
War criminals or collaborators with the Nazis have also found refuge at Radio Free Europe. Among them are the war criminal Ladislav Niznansky, former commander of the SS Edelweiss unit responsible for the murder of civilians in Slovakia, and editor Imrich Kruzliak, former head of propaganda for the so-called state of Slovakia under the Nazis. They and others like them took part in mass reprisals against 124 civilians during the Second World War. Today, in their capacity as CIA mercenaries, they are trying to split the socialist camp.
---Asen Ivanov Mandikov is a confidential agent of the CIA. When still a schoolboy in his home town of Pleven, Bulgaria, he was leader of the ``legionaries'' at grammar school and cooperated with the police. During his stay in Germany in 1943 he collaborated with the Gestapo. He and his wife Milka Ruseva from the town of Yambol (she was an agent of the Bulgarian police) betrayed progressive Bulgarian citizens who were residing in Germany to the Nazis. Through their denunciations the well-known musicians Nedyalka and Vasil Cherniaev were sent to a concentration camp in the spring of 1944.
---Since his youth Todor Pipev had been an active participant in fascist youth organizations. After the victory of the September 1944 Revolution in Bulgaria the people's government gave him the opportunity to study and work, but he led an undisciplined life and maintained illegal ties with US embassy staff, who paid him for information. Pipev now sits in front of Radio Free Europe's microphones and throws dirt at his Motherland.
Let us now take a look at the new generation of employees at Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty---people who emigrated to Israel but found themselves in Western Europe and finally at RFE/RL. Here are some of them:
---M. Geller was sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment for the misappropriation of state property. After serving his sentence he went abroad, where he met Max Ralis, a US secret agent who found a job for him in Paris. Ralis offered Geller the post of "adviser on Russian problems" at a branch of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, called "Audience and Opinion Research Department". Since 1969 Geller has been working for US intelligence under the surname of Kruchek.
---A. Roytman, a former member of the bar in Kiev, from which he was expelled for trying to persuade a witness not to give evidence; he speculated in icons and cigarettes in Schonau (Austria). In the West he married an American woman named Sheron Goller, a member of the Jewish Defence League, who found him a job at Radio Liberty.
---V. Matusevich was recruited by the CIA during his stay in Norway in 1 968. He has a sex-related mental disorder and is a molester of minors.
---Natalya Urbanskaya has an intense hatred for the Russians; she is a trouble-maker and blackmailer. At Radio 125 Liberty she has the reputation of being a woman of loose morals. She engages in speculation and pilfers in the Munich shops. At Radio Liberty she collected funds for the building of an Orthodox Church in Jerusalem and pocketed some of the money.
---Rakhil Samoilovna Fedoseyeva went to Israel with her husband in 1971. She is active in the lobby of Radio Liberty; she gathers afl kind of scandalous material. She is reputed to be an "inveterate scandalizer" and fomenter of conflicts on grounds of nationality.
---Velichko Peichev emigrated to Italy in 1973 and joined the anti-Bulgarian campaign the so-called "Antonov case". He claims to be a relative of the Antonov family.
---Gospodin Gospodinov fled to Greece and was detained at a US Army camp, where he was recruited. He was infiltrated several times into Bulgaria as a member of terrorist groups. His wife is a CIA employee and secretary of the professional radio management at Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
---Eduard Oganessian squandered an enormous sum of government money and fled abroad, leaving his wife and three children behind. In France he entered the role of a fighter against the Soviet government and fell into the hands of the US secret services. He was passed through the Ralis bureau and appointed to the Armenian section of Radio Liberty, where he proved to be a careerist and an intriguer. He spreads rumours about the ``incompetence'', ``stupidity'' and `` weaknesses'' of Leon Mikirtichian, the head of the Armenian section.
This atmosphere of intrigue can be felt in all the national sections, where there is a struggle by any dishonourable means for a place in the sun, a struggle in which one strives to demonstrate one's loyalty to the Americans, to work one's way higher and higher up the ladder and get more money. Hence Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty is a scene of constant squabbling and mutual accusations, with appeals being made to the American management. Here is what Der Spiegel, for example, writes in an article entitled "The Russian Spirit":
``The fact that Radio Liberty, which merged with Radio Free Europe, has for some time been torn by feud is not directly connected with a linguistic babel.
``The main causes are rooted in the Russian section, whose one hundred employees have turned into a malignant tumour, at any rate not because of a language barrier...
``The kindling of hatred between nations', 'an assembly place for Nazis', 'a refuge for Nazis and fascists'---such 126 attributes and descriptions can be found in the letters and political articles which are distributed more and more often at the radio station and which are becoming longer and longer.
``A leaflet signed by 'Russian nationalists' and headed 'Enough!' puts the blame for these accusations on the `woman-chasers', `prostitutes', 'agents provocateurs', ' plagiarists' and 'KGB agents', whom in the last few years 'a third wave of emigres has swept onto the shores of Radio Liberty'.
``To the inactivity and 'dove cooing' of the radio station's management, which only 'composes soothing memoranda', these nationalists 'want to respond with resolute measures', for 'the time of chit-chat and reassuring peacemaking is over'...
``After an editorial meeting in the summer of 1975, announcer Victoria Semyonova stated, in a letter to the head of her section, the 'bitter truth', which consisted of the fact that many Radio Liberty programmes 'lacked character' and suffered from the 'absence of the Russian spirit'.
``...A pamphlet, according to which the Jews of the socalled Russian section of Radio Liberty are balanced by only nine non-Jews, openly warned that 'the Jews are penetrating the other sections'.
``The incomprehensible acquired even sharper contours when, in a report delivered to the sections' employees in January, the Ukrainian emigre L. Plyushch, who lives in Paris, mentioned secret fascist organizations in Leningrad and Lvov which bear the swastika and accuse Jews all over the world of 'bringing an entropy to civilization'.
``... Radio Liberty Director Starr confidentially told a reporter from the Internationa/ Herald Tribune that national and racial dissensions in his department had obviously affected the quality of broadcasts. Over the last two years the number of listeners had fallen `dramatically' from 6.2 million to 3.1 million.''^^9^^
An appeal made by the radio station's management entitled "To All Radio Liberty Employees", in which the management proposed burying the hatchet, was like the voice of one crying out in the wilderness.
On the very next day a memorandum was distributed at Radio Liberty. It read:
__FIX__ More blockquotes to insert...``We, the undersigned, state that an intolerable situation has been brought about at our radio station by the excessive aggravation of the nationality problem. Two camps have been formed whose adherents have been making public accusations, which in a number of cases have developed into personal insults and insinuations of a political nature.
127``As to our multinational collective, we are witnessing, unfortunately, the most pitiful, yet the most dangerous, of all possible historical scenarios: a division into two camps, a polarization, a clash, an explosion! In this war of 'all against all', the course of which after a certain critical point is no longer dictated by the interests of one or the other group (interests which are, moreover, poorly understood), but exclusively by the dynamics of group conflict, there can be no victors, for grief will befall not only the vanquished, but everybody in general...
(Giovanni Bensi) (S. Mirsky)"^^10^^
Apparently it is really difficult to manage such a mixed team of emigres. The American journalist Jack Anderson, however, has his own view on the situation at Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. He managed to find the key to the enigma, when the radio stations "choking in a stream of propaganda have been spending money like a drunken sailor and making incredible blunders, like beaming the wrong programmes to the wrong countries in the wrong language".^^11^^ It turns out that the whole trouble is that the men at the headquarters of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty in Munich have been swimming in beer, wine and hard drink. It seems that these men want to turn Bavaria's famous Bacchus festival in October into an all-- theyear-round affair. Drinking sprees have become the custom for the staff of the radio stations.
According to research carried out by the American journalist, all the sins are ascribed to the technical and engineering personnel, to the office and other workers, i.e., to the small fry. What would Jack Anderson have written had he known about the even more serious and conspicuous misdeeds committed by hundred per cent Americans who are on the management board of the radio stations, such as Hyman S. Busch, Director of the General Services Department? Although, to be fair, we should start with his predecessor, Henry Berliner, initiator of a custom far more original than swilling beer on Thursdays.
Henry Berliner had been Director of the General Services
Department ever since the foundation of the radio station. A
respectable family man and a great lover of dogs, it seemed he
would not have harmed a fly. Soon the Germans, when talking
amongst themselves, began to call the respectable Henry
Berliner "Mr. Ten Per Cent" because he would not conclude
any deal for the purchase of cars, furniture, various electrical
128
__CAPTION__[no caption.]
equipment or refrigerators for the radio centre unless ten per
cent of the cost of the goods purchased was put into his
personal account. Apart from this, he became a partner in the
local building firm which did all the construction work for
RFE/RL by investing four per cent of the capital in it. When all
these facts became public knowledge the enterprising Berliner
had to leave the radio station. He was succeeded by Hyman S.
Busch, another full-blooded American. He followed in the
footsteps of his predecessor. It is not known as yet what rate of
interest Hyman has imposed on his partners; that is his
commercial secret. But his business is obviously flourishing, Mr.
Busch already has 2.5 million marks accredited to his account
at the Bavarian United Bank. This new millionaire went further
than his teacher, Henry Berliner, and began to take a large
monthly sum even from the lease-holder of the restaurant on
the radio centre's grounds.
When his contract expired in the spring of 1984 Busch managed to extend it for another year. How much he paid for this is another one of his commercial secrets. It is said at Radio Liberty that he apparently shared bribes with influential men on the management board, individuals such as RFE/RL President James Buckley and Radio Liberty Director George Bailey. Here, for example, is what Horizont magazine of the German Democratic Republic has to say about the Director of Radio Liberty^^12^^:
129``When the appointment of George Theodore Bailey as Radio Liberty Director became known, many of those who knew him as George Bibel, Georg Thomas, Jack Thomas, Mr. Troimann, or Major Frank---in short, as a US secret agent, were greatly surprised.
``On the pages of the official bulletin George Bailey looked like a venerable writer and famous journalist.
``But who in fact was this `venerable' and `famous' man?
``He was born and raised in the Hungarian community of Chicago. When the war broke out, George sent an application to an Air Force school, but found himself in an intelligence school. In 1943 he was sent to London to attend six-month courses for the study of East European languages, where he mastered Romanian. Subsequently when talking to his agents he would say: 'I am a Hungarian, but I was educated in London.'
``In 1948 he was sent to work in the American zone of occupation in Germany. First he served at Camp King, a unit of US intelligence in Frankfort on the Main, and in May 1951 he received an appointment in West Berlin. His cover: an operative of Section C-2 at the headquarters of the 759th Military Police Battalion.
``Also working in Section C-2 were David Kreetchevski and K. G. Junau, alias Julian. This group formed part of the Political Subversion Unit based at Passatstrasse 9, Bogenhausen District, Munich. The unit was headed by Williams Kereck; his deputy was Stuart. The tasks of the unit were political intelligence and organizing uprisings and a guerrilla movement on the territory of the USSR. In carrying out this task, George Bailey tried to persuade Soviet citizens to betray their country and recruited emigres to be sent to the Soviet Union on spying missions.
``His very first steps as a spy showed that Bailey was incompetent at his job. His carelessness was simply astonishing. In violation of all the rules of secrecy he went tp secret addresses in the same Ford of a sand-grey colour. In the same flats he received the same informants, so that his neighbours even began to exchange greetings with his agents.
``Through absent-mindedness and carelessness he lost a number of important secret documents, including the directive plan and those detailing the sources of his information, which he had left at a safe house or in an unlocked car.
``Bailey's assistants were affected by his own carelessness.
For instance, the resident agent Pozdnyakov (Bailey's
__PRINTERS_P_129_COMMENT__
9-928
130
__CAPTION__
RFE/RL President James Buckley, closely connected with the CIA.
confidential agent) kept in his flat at Ottingerstrasse 10, Munich,
copies of reports conveyed to US intelligence and lists of the
commanding officers in Vlasov's 'Russian Liberation Army',
and in the basement lay two large suitcases with receipts from
[131]
__CAPTION__
Former RL Director George Bailey, a CIA staff worker. Radio Liberty
continues to be run by US intelligence.
agents for sums of money received, with various secret
addressed and old intelligence dispatches.
``By that time Bailey had learnt the ABC of book-keeping by double entry: he began to cover his own expenses by 132 pocketing the money earmarked for his informants. That is, he began to `milk' the CIA as well as his informants.
``But that was only a beginning. In 1952, when George Bailey became chief of the C-2 Secret Service Unit, his double-entry book-keeping assumed even greater proportions.
``There were, of course, agents who refused to give false receipts, such as Count Landsdorf. Bailey did not stand on ceremony with such men. He sent denunciations to Munich, calling them misinformants and Soviet agents. He also had Junau, his rival for the post of chief of C-2, removed. He told headquarters that as regards intelligence operations Junau was inefficient and even incapable. This method brought the desired results: Junau was urgently recalled to the United States. Bailey is following the same line today as he fights for survival against Jon S. Lodeesen, his rival for the post of Director of Radio Liberty. He secretly warned the Board for International Broadcasting about Lodeesen's would-be inefficiency as Director of the Planning and Research Department of Radio Liberty, and complained that he was creating a nervous situation at Radio Liberty.''
Many are unable to tolerate such an atmosphere at the radio station and leave, as did Ambartsum Khlgatyan. We cite an extract from his open letter addressed to a fellow employee of the Armenian section of Radio Liberty, Mf. Leonard Fox. It was published in the United States in the newspaper Russky go/os ("Russian Voice"), February 23, 1984:
``I have decided to stop working for Radio Liberty as a freelance contributor....
``Five years of living in the United States have gradually changed my ideas about the West and my opinion about its so-called `values'...
``I shall single out what to me are the more important aspects:
``1. Acquaintance with the facts from within has convinced me that the Soviet authorities were right in affirming that the so-called 'human rights movement' in the USSR (we of the Armenian group were proud of participating in it), far from being the fruit of social development or the requirement of our country (as we were ignorant and naive enough to believe), was planned in a centre in the West of which you and I are aware and brought into being by outside efforts for purposes hostile to the USSR.
``2. Our country is making a fresh start and is experiencing 133 an unprecedented upsurge of spirit and energy. I am happy at my own transformation and immensely glad that I can combine devoted love for my country with the deepest trust and pride in the Soviet leadership.
``3. My assessment of the present US Administration is the direct opposite and absolutely negative...
``Probably never in the past has the United States had a more incompetent, reactionary and irresponsibly dangerous government. One is saved from the feeling of fear only by firm belief in the political maturity of the Americans, who will doubtless reject and do away with this catastrophic policy pursued by men who are living in the past.
``Propaganda of such a policy is simply criminal.
``4. When portraying Soviet life Radio Liberty uses black paint only, forgetting about the range of expression in the West's overemphasized pluralism; and it describes in glowing terms the `delights' of the `Free' West. Not a word is said about the exploitation of labour in the West. An even stricter taboo protects the name of Israel and its `chivalrous' behaviour towards its Arab neighbours and towards the fellow citizens of former Palestine.
``It is not to the Soviet people that Radio Liberty addresses itself, but to a small alien group in the Soviet Union, and it tries to make heroes out of rabble. Such a method has nothing to do with reality, truthfulness or objectivity.
``The national sections of Radio Liberty are obliged to denounce the international friendship between, and the unity of, the Soviet peoples, and, while brandishing the slogan of national independence and sovereignty (which in fact all Soviet and socialist nations possess), they sow the seeds of national discord....
``5. While away from my homeland I discovered that my love for it was even stronger, and my heart suffered agonizingly and bled from the immense and irreplaceable loss of my country. There is no, nor can there be, any aim that can justify this tragic sacrifice.
``On the contrary, truth, honour and dignity are on the side of the classless society of my Motherland, and the champions of free enterprise and pluralism have turned Western society into a jungle, while they themselves wallow in lies, injustice, immorality and dishonour. Looking around me, I find no Western `values' worthy of defence; on the contrary, a great many of them ought to be scrapped.
134``As a result of this change in my views, I can no longer bring myself to blacken my country: to do so is against mv conscience.
``As for myself, I have made up my mind to cease participating m activities which, despite advertisement to the contrary do not serve the high demands of humanism, peace, social justice and all-round enrichment of the human personality.
December 15, 1983
New York~
Ambartsum Agasievich Khlgatyan"^^13^^
[135] __NUMERIC_LVL1__ Chapter IX __ALPHA_LVL1__ The Illegal Nature ofAn indispensable condition for the development of cooperation among states in all spheres of international relations is the immutable principle of respect for state sovereignty, the preservation by each state of its independence, and noninterference in the internal affairs of others.
In the sphere of radio communication, officially called ``telecommunication''^^1^^ (more than 120 countries are members of the International Telecommunication Union), the sovereignty of each state rests on the fact that all the air space over its lands and waters forms part of its national territory. Most nations came to this conclusion by experience; so did most experts in international law who were doing research on the international legal regulation of telecommunication.
But certain circles in the West do not recognize these obvious facts and principles and seek to violate the sovereignty of other states. In view of this, there is an objective need for a state to defend its national frontiers not only against an invasion but also against aggressive broadcasting.
The problem of protecting the territory of sovereign states against provocative, subversive and slanderous radio propaganda arose for the first time more than 50 years ago. In 1933 Austria and some other European states began to jam radio broadcasts from Nazi Germany. Austria jammed these broadcasts in an attempt to counter Nazi propaganda aimed at the forcible annexation of its territory to Germany. In doing so, the 136 Austrian government based itself on the resolution of the Third Congress of the International Radio Consultative Committee, held in Rome in 1928. One of the paragraphs in the resolution stipulates that each state has the right, within the framework of agreements based on treaties, to prevent the transmission of radio waves across its territory whenever it is necessary to protect its vital interests.
In 1936 the League of Nations convened an International Conference Concerning the Use of Broadcasting in the Cause of Peace. The task of the Conference was to work out legal measures aimed at stopping subversive radio propaganda coming from Germany and Italy, which had launched propaganda of this nature against certain West 'European states on the eve of the Second World War. The Conference elaborated the International Convention Concerning the Use of Broadcasting in the Cause of Peace, which outlawed militarist, instigative and subversive radio propaganda.
The International Convention was signed on September 23, 1936, by 28 states, including the Soviet Union. In signing the Convention a number of states issued statements affirming that they reserved the right to stop by all possible means propaganda which could cause harm to their internal order and which was being conducted in violation of the Convention.
Here are some of the articles of that International Convention:
Article 1
The High Contracting Parties mutually undertake to prohibit and, if occasion arises, to stop without delay the broadcasting within their respective territories of any transmission which to the detriment of good international understanding is of such a character as to incite the population of any territory to acts incompatible with the internal order or the security of a territory of a High Contracting Party.
Article 2
The High Contracting Parties mutually undertake to ensure that transmissions from stations within the respective territories shall not constitute an incitement either to war against another High Contracting Party or to acts likely to lead thereto.
137Article 3
The High Contracting Parties mutually undertake to prohibit and, if occasion arises, to stop without delay within their respective territories any transmission likely to harm good international understanding by statements the incorrectness of which is or ought to be known to the persons responsible for the broadcasts.
They further mutually undertake to ensure that any transmission likely to harm good international understanding by incorrect statements shall be rectified at the earliest possible moment by the most effective means, even if the incorrectness has become apparent only after the broadcast has taken place....
Article 6
In order to give full effect to the obligations assumed under preceding articles, the High Contracting Parties mutually undertake to issue, for the guidance of governmental broadcasting services, appropriate instructions and regulations, and to secure their application by these services.
With the same end in view, the High Contracting Parties mutually undertake to include appropriate clauses for the guidance of any autonomous broadcasting organizations, either in the constitutive charter of a national institution, or in the conditions imposed upon a concessionary company, or in the rules applicable to other private concerns, and to take the necessary measures to ensure the application of these clauses.^^2^^
When ratifying the Convention the USSR made the following statement: "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics declares that it retains the right to take any measures to protect its interests in the event of non-observance by other states of the Convention's clauses, as well as in the event of actions violating its interests.''^^3^^
International recognition of the sovereignty of states in the sphere of broadcasting is confirmed by the fact that under an agreement between the United Nations and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) signed in August 1947, the ITU became a specialized agency of the United Nations, the Charter of which is based on the observance of the principles of the independence of states and of non-interference in their internal affairs.
The existence of a special agreement between the ITU and 138 the United Nations is confirmed in the International Telecommunication Convention (Montreux, 1965), Chapter III of which ("Relations with the United Nations and International Organizations") reads:
``Article 29
Relations with the United Nations.
1. The relationship between the United Nations and the International Telecommunication Union is defined in the Agreement concluded between these two Organizations.''^^4^^
This Agreement envisages the participation of representatives of the two organizations in their sessions with the right to a deliberative vote, and, if mutually requested, the inclusion on the sessions' agenda of issues which interest both-parties. The Agreement also stipulates a rule under which, in order to coordinate the activities of the International Telecommunication Union and the general principles by which it is guided, the United Nations is obliged to- issue for the ITU recommendations which, though not binding, must be discussed by members of the ITU before they are rejected or implemented.
The principles of unlimited sovereignty and noninterference in the internal affairs of other states with regard to telecommunication are respected by the majority of states and governments which adhere to the generally accepted rules of international cooperation. Abuse of the capabilities of radio broadcasting and television for the purpose of causing moral and material damage to other states, including direct harm to the internal situation in other countries, is perpetrated only by governments which pursue (overtly or covertly) hegemonic ambitions, and also by countries which are to a lesser or greater extent dependent on them.
In 1934-1935 the ancient Lithuanian town of Klaipeda witnessed the trial of local National-Socialists. The fascist radio station in Konigsberg began to spread slanderous fabrications about the trial in Klaipeda. So the Klaipeda radio station began tojam broadcasts from Konigsberg. In retaliation six German radio stations headed by the Berlin radio jammed Klaipeda broadcasts to such an extent that for several days all Lithuanian broadcasting was put out of action. As is known, in 1939 Germany captured Klaipeda and carried out repressions against persons of Lithuanian nationality; the persons engaged in that radio war were not forgotten...
Disregard for state sovereignty and for agreements in the 139 sphere of radio communication is primarily characteristic of the United States. In accordance with a decision adopted in 1947 by the International Telecommunication Conference (and US representatives were among those who adhered to it), a conference of all European nations (except Spain) convened in Copenhagen in 1948 to allocate radio frequencies. In 1950 out of the 121 channels allocated, only 19 remained free; the US occupation authorities took 38 instead of the 5 channels assigned to them, the British occupation authorities---13 instead of 4, and the Spanish stations (often used by the US authorities)---32 instead of 10. Because of a lack of order on the air millions of people in Europe could not listen to national broadcasts without interference. Numerous complaints to international organizations, including the International Telecommunication Union, compelled the telecommunication board of the US State Department to give explanations. But while admitting that nearly a third of all the frequencies allocated in Copenhagen were being used by the US occupation authorities the board intimated that they would not implement the Copenhagen plan for as long as it suited special US objectives in Europe.^^5^^
This was the response despite the fact that the United States is a member of the International Telecommunication Union (instituted in Madrid in 1932), the Charter of which says that its aims are to maintain and expand international cooperation for the improvement and rational use of all types of telecommunication. The United States is also not only a member but one of the founders of the United Nations. The UN Charter lays down that the founders of that organization are determined "to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained," and for this purpose "to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbours"^^6^^.
Unfortunately, international cooperation in the field of broadcasting and television is regarded by certain quarters and governments in the West as an instrument of instigative and subversive propaganda, above all against countries of the socialist community.
Subversive propaganda began to be conducted by radio in the 1930s, when the developed countries of Western Europe started broadcasting to other countries. However, subversive propaganda has at all times been regarded as a violation of international law, especially when normal diplomatic relations exist between the states concerned.
140International law distinguishes two categories of subversive propaganda: propaganda of war, and slanderous propaganda.
Subversive propaganda proper is understood in international law as communications, including radio transmissions, sent from one country to another for the purpose of creating in the target country movements which intend to overthrow the existing political order there. This category of hostile propaganda is the more widespread and has always been regarded to be against the law. Since incitement to an illegal act is in itself illegal, the law plainly obliges the government to refrain in peace time from making propaganda which is hostile towards the government of another country.
Slanderous propaganda, which is outlawed by most countries as a criminal offence, imputes to other countries or governments negative traits or actions which in reality do not exist. All these categories of subversive propaganda are illegal from the point of view of international law.
Subversive propaganda is the illegal activity conducted by means of radio by the United States, Britain, the Federal Republic of Germany and some other NATO countries against the socialist nations and against states whose political forms of government are disagreeable to those countries.
Such activity is conducted primarily by the Voice of America, the BBC, West Germany's Deutsche Welle, and CIAbacked Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. In effect, this is indirect aggression perpetrated by means of radio. Encyclopaedia Britannica emphasizes that many states have recognized the need for a definition of aggression which would be universally accepted, and the need to include in it "'indirect aggression' such as subversion, infiltration, hostile propaganda and other acts of psychological or political aggression"^^7^^. But up till now, however, the United Nations has been unable to adopt a comprehensive definition of aggression owing to the stubborn resistance of powers which are interested in or which are perpetrating "indirect aggression", thereby grossly violating the generally accepted rules of the international community.
The definition of "indirect aggression" perfectly applies to the subversive and illegal activities of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
Here are some facts that should form the basis of any assessment of their activities from the point of view of international law:
---Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty differs radically from 141 other national radio centres which broadcast to other countries primarily by the nature of its programmes. A national radio station ordinarily reports events taking place in its country and its country's assessment of overseas events of major importance, including those which have occurred in the countries to which the broadcasts are beamed. Things are different with Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, which concentrates on events (and commentaries on them) taking place in the target countries. Reports from the rest of the world take second place...
It is because of this that the Legal Commission of the International Olympic Committee supported in 1977 the decision not to accredit Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty reporters at the 1980 Moscow Olympics.^^8^^
---The content of the broadcasts of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty, being radio stations belonging to the United States and controlled by the US government, is determined by US policy towards Eastern Europe, especially the Soviet Union. The United States' "Fiscal Year 1984-1988 Defense Guidance", which was worked out in accordance with instructions from the US President, sets the aim of destroying socialism as a socio-political system. The foreign-policy propaganda machine of the United States and those of some of its NATO allies today use international broadcasting to achieve the aims formulated in that official document.
---The malicious, subversive nature of RFE/RL broadcasts becomes only too clear in the materials which, under the pretext of making a critical analysis of various aspects of life in the USSR and other socialist countries of Eastern Europe, attempt to disparage the socialist countries' achievements in different spheres of science, industry, culture, art and social progress. It does not matter if the insinuations which are insulting to citizens of the socialist countries are made in the commentaries of a staff employee of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, or in a statement by a guest speaker who is hostile towards the socialist countries.
Broadcasts of this nature are made by American Sovietologists and CIA agents, and also by emigres from socialist countries who have lost all contact with listeners in their home countries, and who are divorced from the real situation in which these listeners live. Their isolation grows with the years, and they become less and less able to understand the events taking place in the socialist countries. In fact, these people have entered the service of foreign intelligence and are trying to earn the money which they receive from it. All 142 researchers of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty activities point to the personal animosity and hatred which inspire the emigre staff when it prepares and broadcasts programmes; these people, because of their opposition to the social and political systems in their home countries, are waging an open struggle from abroad against the policies of the countries they have left.
---Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty is used by the US secret services as a centre that unites and directs the subversive anti-socialist activities of most of the emigre organizations in the West.
---The RFE/RL corporation works with the intention of inculcating in the population of the target countries a negative attitude and opposition towards social and political events in these countries and towards the official policies of their legitimate governments; it is also attempting to bring about radical changes in the social and political systems of the socialist countries.
Let us now take a look at some facts about the status, structure and activities of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty from the point of view of international law.^^9^^
The radio corporation operates with the knowledge, approval and support of the highest state bodies (of both Congress and the Administration) of the United States. These bodies endorse and allocate funds for the maintenance of the radio corporation, receive reports on its activities, and determine its political orientation. The corporation's directors are US citizens.
The activities of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty are also carried on with the knowledge and approval of the West German government, some Land governments and municipal administrative bodies situated on the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany. They are conducted on the basis of licences to broadcast which have been granted by the Federal Ministry of Postal Services. The Federal government is regularly informed by the Ministry of Postal Services about the activities of the radio corporation. Hence it follows that the United States and the Federal Republic of Germany, as corporate legal bodies, are answerable before international law for the activities of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, and they bear legal responsibility, since the existence and activities of the radio corporation violate international law.
The existence and activities of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, from the point of view of international law and of Article 2 of the Charter of the United Nations, constitute a violation of the internationally binding prohibition on 143 interfering in the internal affairs of other states since these activities:
a) serve exclusively to conduct broadcasts for listeners in other countries in their languages for the purpose of exerting an external influence by means of instigative propaganda on the internal social and political situation in the target countries so as to change it, to undermine the confidence of the population of these countries in their social and political systems, in the policies of their legitimate governments, and in the information conveyed by the national mass media, and thus to create internal opposition;
b) are conducted with the help of employees consisting of individuals who have fled from their homelands because they opposed the policies of their governments or were under criminal investigation there, or collaborated with foreign intelligence services, or maintained contact with them.
The principle of international law about non-interference in the internal affairs of states has been given the following interpretation and more accurate definition in the Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation Among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations (Resolution 2625/XXV of October 24, 1970, subsequently called in short the "Declaration on Principles") which was unanimously adopted at the 25th session of the UN General Assembly. Being true and authentic, this interpretation of the UN Charter is binding on all states. The Declaration on Principles says:
``... No State shall organize, assist, foment, finance, incite or tolerate subversive, terrorist or armed activities directed towards the violent overthrow of the regime of another State, or interfere in civil strife in another State....
``Every State has an inalienable right to choose its political, economic, social and cultural systems, without interference in any form by another State.''
At the same time, this principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of other states as laid down in the UN Declaration on Principles has been proclaimed as one of the fundamental principles operating in international law today, and all states must strictly comply with it.
We have already mentioned violation by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty of the principle of non-interference. Violation of this principle consists not only of the desire to create opposition in the target countries, but also of interference in the information policy of other states, for to determine this policy is the internal affair of the state concerned.
Literature on international law recognizes with complete 144 justification that the conduct of radio propaganda in regard to other countries in the form carried put by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty constitutes a violation of the universally accepted principle of non-interference.
For instance, International Law (Vol. I, London, 1955, p. 292), a well-known work compiled in Britain by Oppenheim and Lauterpacht, clearly states that hostile propaganda against another state is a violation of international law.^^10^^ The American expert on international law V. O'Brien writes in his book International Propaganda and a Minimum World Public Order---International Control of Propaganda that it is perfectly clear that all states are obliged, within their jurisdiction, not to permit actions which threaten the territorial integrity and political independence of sovereign states with which they maintain peaceful relations. Since everybody knows the important role that propaganda plays in international relations today, he writes, the approval or support by a state of incitement to war, to sabotage and in certain cases to slanderous propaganda is a violation of international law.
The so-called Harvard Principles for the International Law of the Future make it clear that for good-neighbourly relations to exist between states it is not enough merely to refrain from official interference in the internal affairs of other states. "Each State has a legal duty to prevent the organization within its territory of activities calculated to foment civil strife in the territory of any other State," the Principles say.
The Dictionary of International Law, published in West Germany and compiled by Karl Strupp and Hans-Jurgen Schlochauer, categorically points out:
``In accordance with state practice and with the general opinion of experts on law hostile propaganda from abroad is a violation of international common law... Foreign propaganda against the existence or constitutional order of other states violates their national right to sovereignty.''^^11^^
These appraisals of international law and the fact that the RFE/RL activities are illegal do not in any way question or infringe upon the right of every state to propagate its political views and the principles of its domestic and foreign policies through, among other means, radio. The exercise of this sovereign right is restricted only by the obligation to respect the sovereignty of other states.
The existence and activities of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty are also illegal from the point of view of bilateral agreements existing between the states which direct the radio corporation and the states on whose territory the radio 145 corporation and its branches are situated, on the one hand, and the states to which subversive broadcasts are beamed, on the other.
Between the United States, which directs the activities of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, and the Federal Republic of Germany, on the territory of which these radio stations are situated, on the one hand, and many of the East European countries, against which RFE/RL activities are aimed, on the other, there exist bilateral treaties concerning international law with which the activities of that radio corporation are incompatible.
With this in mind we should note the following bilateral agreements concluded between the Soviet Union and the United States.
Paragraph 1 of the Basic Principles of Mutual Relations Between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America, concluded by the two countries on May 29, 1972, says:
``They will proceed from the common determination that in the nuclear age there is no alternative to conducting their mutual relations on the basis of peaceful coexistence. Differences in ideology and in the social systems of the USSR and the USA are not obstacles to the bilateral development of normal relations based on the principles of sovereignty, equality, non-interference in internal affairs and mutual advantage.''
The Preamble to the General Agreement Between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America on Contacts, Exchanges and Cooperation, signed on June 1 9, 1973, says that the two states concluded the agreement "desiring to promote better understanding between the peoples of the Soviet Union and the United States and to help improve the general state of relations between the two countries". Article 7 of the Agreement provides, in particular, for the development of contacts and exchanges in the field of broadcasting.
In the Joint Soviet-US Communique of July 3, 1974, the two parties stated their decision to continue joint efforts to develop, in particular, "broad, mutually beneficial cooperation... on the basis of the principles of sovereignty, equality and non-interference in internal affairs with a view to promoting increased understanding and confidence between the peoples of both countries.''
Obviously, the activities of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty and of the Voice of America, which are being carried __PRINTERS_P_145_COMMENT__ 10-928 146 out with the approval and assistance of, and with political direction and financing from, US state bodies, are incompatible with these agreements, which are legally binding.
Similar conclusions can be drawn from the Declaration on the Principles of Relations Between the Polish People's Republic and the United States of America, signed on October 9, 1974, since in the Declaration the two parties pledge to build their bilateral relations on the principles of the UN Charter and international law; they also confirmed, in particular, their adherence to the principles of sovereignty, noninterference in internal affairs, equality and mutual respect, emphasizing their determination to further the development of peaceful relations between states with different socioeconomic systems.
The treaties that the Federal Republic of Germany signed with the Soviet Union (August 12, 1970), with the Polish People's Republic (December 7, 1970), and with the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (December 11, 1973), which have been ratified by the contracting parties and are in force, oblige them to build their relationships on the principles of the UN Charter, and, consequently, on the principles of sovereignty, equality and non-interference in the internal affairs of another state (Article II of the Soviet-FRG Treaty, Article II of the Polish-FRG Treaty, and Article III of the CzechoslovakFRG Treaty).
In these treaties the signatories expressed their determination to normalize bilateral relations and promote peaceful, equal and mutually beneficial cooperation with a view to consolidating peace and easing tension (Preamble and Article I of the Soviet-FRG Treaty, and also Paragraph 5 of the Declaration of Intentions to it; Article III of the Polish-FRG Treaty; Article I of the Czechoslovak-FRG Treaty).
Therefore it follows that sanctioning subversive activities conducted by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty from the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany violates these international legal obligations of the Federal-Republic of Germany with respect to the USSR, Poland and Czechoslovakia.
The activities of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty and of other radio centres in the West constitute a gross violation of the accords, formalized in the Final Act of the Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, on the exchange of information (Section III, Paragraph 2), and also infringe upon the first section of the Declaration on Principles by which the participating states should be guided in their mutual relations.
147The Preamble to Section III of the Final Act says: "... This cooperation should take place in full respect for the principles guiding relations among participating States as set forth in the relevant document" (i.e., in Section I of the Final Act), which means that:
---"The participating States will respect each other's sovereign equality and individuality as well as all the rights inherent in and encompassed by its sovereignty, including in particular the right of every State to... freedom and political independence. They will also respect each other's right freely to choose and develop its political, social, economic and cultural systems as well as its right to determine its laws and regulations" (Principle 1, paragraph 1);
---"The participating States will refrain from any intervention, direct or indirect, individual or collective, in the internal or external affairs falling within the domestic jurisdiction of another participating State, regardless of their mutual relations..." "Accordingly, they will, inter alia, refrain from direct or indirect assistance... to subversive or other activities directed towards the violent overthrow of the regime of another participating State" (Principle 6, paragraphs 1 and 4);
---"They will endeavour, in developing their cooperation as equals, to promote mutual understanding and confidence, friendly and good-neighbourly relations among themselves, international peace, security and justice.''
In other words, an information policy is incompatible with the Final Act unless it observes the basic principles listed above; violation of these principles (there is no doubt whatsoever that they are violated not only by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, but also by the Voice of America and other radio centres in the West) runs counter to the letter and spirit of the Final Act of the Helsinki Conference.
The RFE/RL activities also contradict the basic provisions of the Federal Republic of Germany's state law.
Thus, in accordance with Article 25 of the FRG Fundamental Law, "the general principles of international law form part of the state law of the Federal Republic of Germany. Directly on them are based the laws, and also the rights and duties of the citizens of the Federal Republic of Germany." This article of the Fundamental Law also lends to the generally accepted rules of international law the "character of constitutional norms of the Federal Republic of Germany"^^12^^.
Linked to the "generally accepted rules of international law" are the principles of the UN Charter, Articles I and II of the Charter, which were unanimously proclaimed at the 25th 148 session of the UN General Assembly in the above-mentioned Declaration on Principles.
Among these basic principles of international law which are currently in force is the principle of non-interference in the internal and external affairs of another state. It follows from this that the RFE/RL activities which, contradict the international-law provision prohibiting interference in the internal affairs of other states, also contradict the Constitution of the FRG (the Fundamental Law) under its Article 22. A similar conclusion can be drawn from Article 26, Paragraph 2, of the Fundamental Law, under which "actions designed and undertaken for the purpose of hampering peaceful coexistence of nations" run counter to the spirit of the Constitution and are punishable by law.
Legal experts believe that Article 25 and Article 26 (Paragraph 1) of the Fundamental Law are equally applicable to similar actions both by state bodies and by individuals (FRG citizens as well as aliens).^^13^^
Many apologists of aggressive broadcasting against the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe, and certain individuals who are simply misguided, refer to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights to justify interference by radio in the internal affairs of other states. Article 19, Paragraph 2, of this Covenant guarantees the right to spread information regardless of state frontiers. However (let alone the fact that this right, like all the rights enshrined in this Covenant, applies only to individuals and not to states), Paragraph 3 of the same article sets clear limits to this right and lays particular emphasis on the right of states to subordinate this freedom of exchanging information to legitimate restrictions, whenever it is necessary, for the following purposes:
``For respect of the rights or reputations of others;
``For the protection of national security or of rjublic order..., or of public health or morals.''
This ruling emphasizes the responsibility that states have when exercising their right to form their own information policy.
Apart from this, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights requires that states should prohibit at home not only propaganda of war, but also "any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence''.
The arguments we have advanced to prove the illegality of the actions of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty are almost equally applicable (in the case of the Deutsche Welle---fully 149 applicable) to other radio centres in the West which make instigative and subversive propaganda against the USSR and Eastern Europe.
States which are the victims of aggressive broadcasting and whose rights have been infringed upon as a result of the illegal activities of the United States and the Federal Republic of Germany are entitled to take the following legal steps:
---To bring an action against a radio corporation, demanding an end to its activities;
---To claim damages if the activities of a radio corporation have resulted in material losses (as was the case, for example, in 1956 in the Hungarian People's Republic, which sustained material losses as s result of RFE/RL activity);
---In the event of non-compliance by radio corporation with the demand to stop illegal activities (such as those conducted by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, the Voice of America and Deutsche Welle against the USSR and Eastern Europe), the target countries are entitled to take measures to protect themselves. They can organize a system of interference against the broadcasts of these radio stations, e.g. by jamming these and other radio stations of the United States and the Federal Republic of Germany. They have the right to limit the information-gathering facilities of other mass media of these states, or take some other appropriate measures.
The jamming by the target countries of transmissions from Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, the Voice of America, Deutsche Welle and other radio stations engaging in illegal subversive propaganda is in full conformity with UN Resolution 2448 (XXIII). This resolution provides for retaliatory measures, including the jamming of radio broadcasts, to prevent the spread of misinformation which is detrimental to human dignity and which whips up hatred and prejudice between states, different races, language groups, religions, social sections, etc.
Countermoves by the socialist and other countries against foreign radio broadcasts which are illegal and slanderous, which defame the social and political systems of these countries and which affect their internal order and are designed t<j encourage mistrust between their peoples and governments--- such countermoves do not in any way contradict international commitments and the constitutional norms of the states subjected to subversive propaganda.
We must, however, distinguish subversive propaganda and psychological warfare from ideological struggle, which, unlike subversive propaganda and psychological warfare, is lawful, 150 provided it is not used for subversive purposes by secret services against other states. The battle of ideas presupposes recognition of the equal right of the various ideologies cherished by individuals, political groups or states, and is conducted on the basis of this recognition and by legal methods. The battle of ideas has nothing in common with illegal interference in the internal affairs of other states, or with the creation of obstacles to peaceful cooperation between states with different political systems, or with attacks on their independence and sovereignty.
Subversive propaganda is against the law. It must be stopped and prohibited.
Every attempt, made with an obvious political aim, to present subversive propaganda detrimental to other states as permissible, legal and even necessary actions is a violation of international law, particularly of the ban on interference, and it endangers the accords which have already been reached in the sphere of international law. It is doubtful whether the subversive propaganda of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, made for the sake of illusory and short-lived gains, is in the interests of the countries in which that radio corporation has its transmitters.
[151] __NUMERIC_LVL1__ Chapter X __ALPHA_LVL1__ Radio Should ServeWestern Europe, already in Washington's military and political harness, is in for more of the same. Like the rest of the world, it is a target of the brainwashing campaign launched by Reagan and aimed first and foremost against Eastern Europe. One of the campaign's objectives is to reconcile public opinion in Western Europe with the idea that the arms race and military preparations are necessary and inevitable.
Europe regards this ``crusade'' as another attempt by certain circles in the United States to find a pseudo-ideological justification for the US policy of global and total expansion.
This course has led to intensified US propaganda in Western Europe. USIA, the principal US propaganda agency, promptly responded by leaping into activity on the Continent. After an interval of almost 30 years the Voice of America resumed its broadcasts for listeners in Western Europe. The reasons for the extensive brainwashing in Western Europe lie in the resolute resistance shown there to the US plans to militarize the Continent.
US propagandists painstakingly attempt to persuade the peoples of Western Europe that the deployment of Pershing-2 and cruise missiles has made their lives more secure. Nothing could be further from the truth. Over a hundred American missiles which have been deployed within the space of one year in Western Europe, apart from undermining the Geneva talks, led to appropriate military counter-measures by Eastern 152 Europe in its determination to preserve parity on the Continent. Responsibility for the growth in tension lies not only with the USA but also with those West European politicians who had placed their countries' territories at the disposal of the transatlantic warmongers. Having submitted to Washington's pressure, they have made their countries hostages of US nuclear strategy.
The Soviet Union does not, and never has, demanded unilateral disarmament from any state. Without a single exception, all Soviet initiatives on arms reduction and limitation have been based on considerations for equality and mutual security. Eastern Europe persists in advocating the complete elimination of medium-range and tactical nuclear weapons in Europe.
Since the early postwar period, when the USA monopolized the Western mass media, it persistently resorted to a propaganda offensive against its NATO allies. As soon as big business in the United States was ready for another leap and the US claims for world domination were becoming more persistent, Washington invariably attempted to force its concept of the free flow of information upon the rest of the world.^^1^^
One of the instruments of the US struggle for ideological and political domination in the West became the USIA, which was designed for penetration abroad. "Its goal is to influence and/or manipulate events in foreign countries along lines favourable to US corporate and government foreign policy objectives. Concretely, those objectives translate to economic rape by US multinational corporations for many third world countries...''^^2^^ The Voice of America has the same objectives.
All USIA activities in the country of residence must support objectives outlined in a document called the "Country Plan", which lists US objectives for the country or the area; identifies psychological objectives (attitudes to be created or strengthened which will advance particular US objectives) and groups to be influenced; details the specific programmes which will attain these objectives. Country Plans as a rule specify measures to be taken to counter the influence of French or British broadcasting in the country, the British Council (the British foreign propaganda agency) in particular.
The activities of the US propaganda machine in Western Europe reached their climax in the early 1970s, when the US Information Agency reported to the Administration and Congress its concern about the growing anti-American sentiments in Western Europe and the growing tendency shown by the West European mass media to make an ``unfriendly'' and even ``hostile'' presentation of information about the USA. The 153 then Director of the USIA, James Keogh, explained the antiAmericanism in the propaganda of other Western countries by the fact that there had been an "erosion of old [US] relationships with some of our allies, based on changing perceptions of economic, political and security problems.''^^3^^ The expanding propaganda activities of West European countries, which pursued objectives incompatible with US interests, made Keogh apprehensive. This statement of the USIA Director was made during the energy crisis when US actions which caused the price of oil to rise aroused indignation throughout the world.
The clash between the USA and West Germany in 1978, when Washington demanded that the 209 kHz frequency, allegedly belonging to the USA under a mutual agreement, be handed over to it, should be regarded in this context of conflicting interests. In this connection the US Communications Consultant, Paul R. Bartlett, stated:
``Unfortunately, as I have said, 209 kHz is not in fact 'registered in the FRG' for our use, and while no one denies the United States ownership of the Munich based megawatt transmitter, our own Embassy people told me in Bonn last month that the Germans consider the 209 frequency to be theirs. Knowledgeable officials in Germany are aware that our government can now forcefully assert its right to use this 209 frequency under our 1952 agreement.''^^4^^
Such actions by the United States naturally arouse antiAmerican sentiment in Europe, and US propaganda even now encourages such sentiment. The French Culture Minister, Jack Lang, an active campaigner against the preponderance of American films, music and TV programmes, got .a warm reception at a conference in Mexico where he called for a "crusade against financial and intellectual imperialism, ...against a certain invasion and subversion by images fabricated abroad and standardized music.''^^5^^
The West is expanding the network of its broadcasting stations in the Third World. New broadcasting stations which belong to, for example, the Voice of America and which have been set up in Africa and Asia will enjoy the same exterritorial rights as US military bases abroad. These new broadcasting stations will help Washington in its propaganda campaign against the progressive developing countries of Asia, Africa and the Persian Gulf area. Another reason for these countries' deep concern lies in the fact that the Voice of America transmitters and other equipment will be used not only for propaganda but also for military purposes. Under the agreement, the Americans have been allowed to install modern __PRINTERS_P_153_COMMENT__ 11---928 154 electronic equipment for long-range communications and the guidance of US warships in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
Today the former colonies remain, in effect, dominions of the US and other Western countries' mass media. The young states have to see the world with their former masters' eyes. As far back as 1966, in Latin America alone 700 radio stations were broadcasting 11,000 hours a week taped Voice of America programmes.^^6^^
Analysis of the news items which Western radio stations and news agencies send to the developing countries today shows that 65 per cent of the information is related to the USA and only 8-10 per cent is devoted to the young states. The information about these states is, moreover, of a sensational and even scandalous nature. More often than not, information of this kind is prejudicial to the developing countries. At the same time, one can hardly find anything relating to the economic and social problems and achievements of the developing countries or to the problems of the national liberation struggle.
Thus, it is only natural that the developing countries, along with democratizing their own mass media, are striving for fairness not only in the world economic order and political structure, but also in the international information exchange. Introduction of modern equipment is in the interests of Western countries and reflects their striving to exercise firm control over the radio and press of developing states and, eventually, over their policies, since information today is an integral part in the development of any state and has become a policy-making instrument. Western powers, especially the USA, are imposing an alien ideology upon the Third World states, confining their role to that of passive recipients of information they cannot control.
The aftereffects of such domination in the sphere of information for the developing countries are very serious: low educational level, predominance of the Western ``consumer'' psychology and way of life over national traditional values, and as a result---an actual "cultural genocide". The much-vaunted " unrestricted flow of information" turns out to be a one-way road from the West. Western powers present the just struggle of the developing countries for a new approach to the information exchange as a deadly threat to the Western way of life. The most active opponent of any developing country's establishing control over the flow of information is the United States.
At times the struggle of the developing countries against neo-colonialism in the information exchange is of a 155 spontaneous nature. In December 1983 college students occupied and held for a few hours the United States Information Service (USIS) office in Delhi. Among the organized forms of the struggle against neo-colonialism in the information exchange is the information pool established by non-aligned countries as well as resistance to US, British and West German attempts to redistribute radio frequencies in their own favour.
A negative attitude towards the activities of the major Western broadcasting stations is gaining strength in Western Europe as well. This is a reaction to their policy of hampering good-neighbourly relations on the Continent and intruding into the everyday life of citizens of different countries. The European community, tired of the cold war, vehemently protested against broadcasts made by the United States' most malevolent stations on West German territory. Prominent Socialist International leaders were among the protesters.
Heinrich Junker, former West German Minister of the Interior, a person who is not in the slightest pro-communist, as far back as in 1963 denounced Radio Free Europe for its links with the US secret services. Junker said that all attempts to put a stop to the activities of political underground organizations and secret services in Munich and Bavaria were obstructed by relations with the Western allies. The supplementary agreement to the Treaty on the Status of Occupational Forces in West Germany contained certain regulations concerning foreigners. These regulations bore fully on the Munich-based RFE station.
Back in 1970 Willy Brandt, the then West German Federal Chancellor, pointed out the absurdity of a situation when, 25 years after the Second World War, foreign transmitters based in the Federal Republic of Germany were still broadcasting propaganda to third countries.
``The situation should not be dramatized, but the matter is that a broadcasting station which is exterritorial to a certain extent is operating from West German territory, its many activities being totally beyond the control of this sovereign state. The station is financed and exploited by the CIA which pursues its own 'Eastern policy' without regard for the Federal government's political concepts.''^^7^^
In 1971 the US government negotiated with the French government about the transfer of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty to France. The Pompidou government refused the request. Moreover, the French government dissociated itself from these cold war instruments, and announced that 37 emigres who had in 1971 received asylum in France and were 156 employed by RFE were told to return to France at peril of losing the right of asylum.^^8^^
On March 22, 1972, eight Bundestag deputies sent a message to Chancellor Brandt and US President Nixon, demanding termination of the activities of RFE and RL.
``It is a question of principle whether the activities of these two radio stations on German soil in the year of 1972 correspond to the spirit of the time. The operation of foreign radio stations, unaccountable to the West German government in their programming and the choice of personnel, contradicts the sovereignty of the Federal Republic. It should be taken into account that under certain circumstances these stations' broadcasts may be directed against the Federal government's own policy, which is impermissible.''^^9^^
A special principle having a direct bearing on the mass media is the principle proclaimed in UN General Assembly resolution 110 (II) in 1947, which condemns all forms of propaganda which is either designed or likely to provoke or encourage any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression.
The 1978 UNESCO Declaration states that "the mass media have an important contribution to make to the strengthening of peace and international understanding and in countering racialism, apartheid and incitement to war" (Article III).^^10^^
Unfortunately, the US mass media, including radio stations that conduct subversive propaganda against Eastern Europe and certain developing states, do not observe this principle. Official Washington tries to justify its policy by referring to the Bill of Rights.
The present US Administration is laying particular emphasis on the mass media not only because they are a perfect instrument of political struggle against East European countries but also because the work of the mass media paves the way for future aggression and a nuclear attack on socialist states.
Despite Western politologists' contentions, East-West cooperation in the field of informatics, including broadcasting, is possible, provided propaganda is limited to purely ideological disputes instead of the "psychological warfare" which Washington and military-political circles in NATO are at present gambling on. The critical nature of socio-political propaganda is compatible with friendly relations among countries and has nothing in common with the false, defamatory and 157 malicious information spread by the Western radio stations for subversive purposes.
The United States and some other Western countries are careful to block any attempts to establish, in accordance with the norms and principles of the existing international law, control over the flow of information. Their policy is designed to create the necessary prerequisites for subversion by using the mass media.
The Warsaw Treaty member states in their Prague Political Declaration (1983) have spoken in favour of expanding international cooperation, in particular in the field of information exchange, in favour of mutual cultural enrichment of the peoples. An atmosphere of mutual confidence in East-West relations is one of the most important factors aimed at reducing the threat of war. The provisions for creating this atmosphere are the dissemination of accurate information only, along with abandoning the advocation of violence and militarism and desisting from preaching to other nations as to how they should live. Robert Dallek wrote in his above-mentioned book that the pathological anti-communism of Ronald Reagan and his associates, and their policy of militant anti-Sovietism may lead the United States and the rest of the world to disaster.^^11^^
Stepping up the arms race and simultaneously whipping up enmity, hatred and militarism, imposing psychological warfare upon the peoples, the aggressive circles in NATO are openly pushing the world from a ``cold'' to a ``hot'' war. The complex of subversive propaganda measures taken by the United States at present is aimed at reconciling public opinion to the possibility of a nuclear war. That is the essence of all the Reagan Administration's attempts to expand and intensify psychological warfare. An analysis of the war's goals, forms and methods, of its bearing on Washington's decision-making both militarily and politically reveals that it is conducted not only for the purpose of rendering support to the United States' hegemonistic foreign policy, but also for creating tension necessary for preparations for a nuclear war. Though Eastern Europe is the principal target of psychological warfare and of its essential component, subversive radio propaganda, this warfare presents a danger for the world as a whole, and consequently it should be given special attention by the peoples and countries of the world. Radio broadcasting should serve peace and mutual understanding among nations. Subversive radio centres must be outlawed.
[158] __ALPHA_LVL1__ Notes, BibliographyIntroduction
~^^1^^ Congressional Record-Extensions of Remarks, April 7, 1981,
p. E 1620
~^^2^^ Melinda Beck. "A Hot Cold War Heats Up the ICA", Newsweek, November 16, 1981, p. 36
Chapter I
~^^1^^ James Aronson. The Press and the Cold War New York, 1 970, p. 32
~^^2^^ Ibid., p. 33
~^^3^^ Ibid., p. 35
~^^4^^ Ibid., p. 36
^^5^^ Ibid.
~^^6^^ Thomas C. Sorensen. The World War. The Story of American Propaganda, New York, 1968, p. 24
~^^7^^ Robert T. Holt. Radio Free Europe, Minneapolis, 1958, p. 12
~^^8^^ The New York Times, March 1 5, 1 971
~^^9^^ Joseph G. Whelan. "Radio Liberty---A Study of Its Origins,
Structure, Policy, Programming and Effectiveness".
Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress,
March 22, 1972, p. CRS-8
~^^10^^ Ibid.
~^^11^^ Quoted from the Russian text of Memorandum No. 3-54, Radio Liberation, January 8, 1954, p. 1
~^^12^^ Ibid., p. 2
~^^13^^ Joseph G. Whelan, Op. cit., p. Ill
~^^14^^ J. William Fulbright, "U. S. Funding of 'Freedom Radio'", The Washington Post, August 8, 1973
~^^15^^ CounterSpy, September-November 1982, p. 6
~^^16^^ "The Right to Know", report of the Presidential Study Commission on International Broadcasting, 1973, Congressional RecordExtensions of Remarks, November 17, 1981, p. E 5361
~^^17^^ The Washington Post, August 8, 1973
~^^18^^ Clayton Fritchey. "Hangovers of the Cold War", The Washington Post, March 25, 1 972
~^^19^^ The Board for International Broadcasting. Sixth Annual Report, 1980, p. 1, Congressional Record-Extensions of Remarks, November 17, 1981, p. E 5361
~^^20^^ Thomas C. Sorensen. The World War. The Story of American Propaganda, New York, 1968, p. 225
~^^21^^ Ibid., p. 31
~^^22^^ Ibid.
~^^23^^ Ibid., p. 33
~^^24^^ Ibid.
^^25^^ Ibid., p. 43
~^^26^^ Robert E. Elder. The Information Machine. The United States Information Agency and American Foreign Policy, New York, 1 968, p. 199
~^^27^^ Ibid.
~^^28^^ Ibid., p. 201
~^^29^^ Ibid., p. 184
~^^30^^ Ibid., p. 188
~^^31^^ Thomas C. Sorensen, Op.cit., p. 32
~^^32^^ Dwight D. Eisenhower. The White House Years, Vol. II, Waging Peace, 1956-1961, London, 1965, p. 279
~^^33^^ Robert E. Elder, Op.cit., p. 183
~^^34^^ Ibid.
~^^35^^ Thomas C. Sorensen, Op.cit., p. 241
~^^36^^ Ibid., p. 244
160~^^37^^ Newsweek, June 3, 1968, p. 59
~^^38^^ Statement of Bruce N. Gregory, President of the American
Federation of Government Employees Local 1812 before the
Subcommittee on International Operations of the House International
Relations Committee on a Bill to Authorize Appropriations for the
International Communication Agency,
February 21, 1978, p. 7
~^^39^^ CounterSpy, November 1980-January 1981, pp. 5, 6
~^^40^^ Newsweek, November 16, 1981, p. 36
~^^41^^ Ibid.
~^^42^^ U.S. News & World Report, March 5, 1984, p. 60
~^^43^^ Burcly C.N. The New Warfare, London, 1954, p. 27
~^^44^^ L.John Martin. International Propaganda, Its Legal and Diplomatic Control, Minneapolis, 1958, p. 36
~^^45^^ Britain 1972. An Official Handbook, London, 1972, pp. 438-439
Chapter II
~^^1^^ President Reagan. Promoting Democracy and Peace, June 8, 1982, United States Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Washington, D.C., p. 4
~^^2^^ Ibid.
~^^3^^ Marie-France Toinet. Le Monde diplomatique, juillet 1983, p. 4
~^^4^^ Bernard Gwertzman. "Aid to Democracy Abroad Is Weighed", The New York Times, May 30, 1982
^^5^^ Ibid.
~^^6^^ Der Spiegel, 4.4.1 983, S. 136
~^^7^^ Le Monde diplomatique, juillet 1 983, p. 4
~^^8^^ Maurice T. Maschino. "Le capitalisme contre 'la democratic", Le Monde diplomatique, mars 1977, pp. 8, 9
~^^9^^ Project Democracy
~^^10^^ Congressional Record-Senate, October 20, 1983, p. S 14341
~^^11^^ The Washington Post, February 27, 1983
~^^12^^ Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents, May 21, 1984, p. 715
161~^^13^^ The Christian Science Monitor, March 16, 1983
~^^14^^ Stephen F. Cohen. "About the Sovietophobia Threat and Its Cure", International Herald Tribune, March 26/27, 1983
~^^15^^ Der Spiegel, 4.4.1983, S. 136
~^^16^^ Carl T. Rowan in Reader's Digest, April 1984, p. 66
~^^17^^ International Herald Tribune, March 26/27, 1983
~^^18^^ Akio Takahasi. The President's Crime, Novosti Press Agency Publishing House, Moscow, 1984
Chapter III
~^^1^^ The Board for International Broadcasting. The Ninth Annual Report, October 1, 1981 -September 30, 1982, p. 5
~^^2^^ Der Spiegel, N. 14, 1977, S. 128
~^^3^^ Congressional Record-Extensions of Remarks, March 12, 1980, p. E1218
~^^4^^ Congressional Record-Extensions of Remarks, September 27, 1983, p. E4565
~^^5^^ Congressional Record-Extensions of Remarks, April 7, 1981, pp. E1620, E1622
~^^6^^ Congressional Record-Extensions of Remarks, November 17, p. E5361
~^^7^^ Propaganda and the Cold War, Edited by John B. Whitton, Washington, D.C., 1963, p. 3
~^^8^^ John B. Whitton and Arthur Larson. Propaganda Towards Disarmament in the War of Words, New York, 1963, p. 6
~^^9^^ William E. Daugherty, Morris Janowitz. A Psychological Warfare Casebook, Baltimore, 1958, pp. 551 -553
~^^10^^ Propaganda and the Cold War, p. 3
~^^11^^ The Board for International Broadcasting. 1984 Annual Report, January 31, 1984
~^^12^^ Ibid., p. 1
~^^13^^ Ibid., pp. 3-41
~^^14^^ Ibid.
~^^15^^ Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents, March 1, 1982, p. 224
~^^16^^ Robin Grey. "Inside the Voice of America", Columbia Journalism Review, May/June 1982, p. 3
162~^^17^^ "VOA Weighs Shift in Foreign-Language News Selection", International Herald Tribune, November 16, 1981
~^^18^^ The Washington Post, November 13, 1981
~^^19^^ Robin Grey, Op.cit., p. 22
~^^20^^ Ibid., p. 26
~^^21^^ Nicholaus Ashford. "Selling the Voice of America Like Soap", The Times, November 30, 1981
~^^22^^ Newsweek, November 7, 1983, p. 62
~^^23^^ Jonathan Friendly. "VOA Director Pledges Increase in Editorials", International Herald Tribune, December 12, 1982
~^^24^^ William Pfaff. "America's Strident New Voice", International Herald Tribune, September 2, 1983
~^^25^^ Carl T. Rowan and David M. Mazie. "Why the Voice of America Is in a Jam?", Reader's Digest, April 1984, pp. 171, 176
~^^26^^ The Washington Post, September VI, 1984
~^^27^^ Congressional Record-Senate, November 12, 1981, p. S13330
~^^28^^ Congressional Record-Extensions of Remarks, March 2, 1983, p. E715
~^^29^^ Congressional Record-Extensions of Remarks, September 27, 1983, p. E4564
~^^30^^ Congressional Record-Extensions of Remarks, November 17,1981, p. E5361
~^^31^^ William E. Daugherty, Morris Janowitz, Op.cit., p. 145
~^^32^^ Ibid.
~^^33^^ ARD-Jahrbuch 83. 60 Jahre Radio 1923-1983, Hamburg 1983, S. 282
Chapter IV
~^^1^^ The Board for International Broadcasting. Annual Report, January 31,1983, p. 29
~^^2^^ Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1977, Message from the President of the United States, US Government Printing Office, 1977, p. 2
~^^3^^ ARD-Jahrbuch 83, Hamburg 1983, S. 282
~^^4^^ The Board for International Broadcasting. Annual Report, October 1, 1978-September 30, 1979, pp. 18-19
~^^5^^ "The Voice of America", The New York Times, April 1, 1977
163~^^6^^ "They Want to Hear What We Say", Newsweek, May 14, 1984, p. 60
~^^7^^ The Washington Post, April 14, 1981; Congressional RecordExtensions of Remarks, April 27, 1981, pp. E1822-E1823
~^^8^^ Propaganda and the Cold War, ed. by John B. Whitton, pp. 1, 2
~^^9^^ Ibid., p. 4
~^^10^^ Ibid., pp. 57-61
~^^11^^ Time, March 9, 1981, p. 30
~^^12^^ Ibid.
~^^13^^ C.L. Sulzberger. "Should the Old Labels Be Changed?", The New York Times, July 6, 1964
~^^14^^ Propaganda and the Cold War, pp. 60-61
~^^15^^ International Political Science Review, Vol. 1, No. 3, 1980, p. 312
~^^16^^ Ibid., p. 314
~^^17^^ Encounter, October 1979, p. 15
~^^18^^ Robert Dallek. Ronald Reagan. The Politics of Symbolism, Cambridge, London, 1984, pp. 129-130
~^^19^^ Thomas Powers. The Man Who Kept the Secrets. Richard Helms & the CIA, New York, 1979, pp. 80-81
~^^20^^ CounterSpy, November 1980-January 1981, p. 8
Chapter V
~^^1^^ The New York Times, December 5, 1981
~^^2^^ Radio Free Europe Objectives, Free Europe Committee, September 1963
~^^3^^ Czechoslovak Broadcast Analysis Meeting of January 1 972
~^^4^^ Volksstimme, 23 Oktober 1982
~^^5^^ Volksstimme, 29 Oktober 1982
~^^6^^ Zolnierz Wolnosci, 18.5.1983
Chapter VI
~^^1^^ Emil Hoffmann. Medienfreiheit? Anspruch und Wirklichkeit, Schotten/Hessen, 1981, S. 48
~^^2^^ The New York Times, January 24, 1971
~^^3^^ J. William Fulbright. The Crippled Giant. American Foreign Policy and Its Domestic Consequences, New York, 1 972, pp. 37-38
164~^^4^^ David M. Abshire. "Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty, A New Era", NATO Review, April 1975, p. 28
~^^5^^ The Board for International Broadcasting. Annual Report, October 30, 1975, p. 6
~^^6^^ William Mahoney. "East-Bloc Attacks on Western Broadcasting Grow", /PI Report, Vol 25, May 1976, No. 5, p. 2
~^^7^^ Volksstimme, 28 Marz, 1976
~^^8^^ The New York Times, December 26, 1977
~^^9^^ The New York Times, December 25, 1977
~^^10^^ CounterSpy, November 1980-January 1981, pp. 5-13
~^^11^^ Hearings before the Subcommittee on International Operations of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, February 15, 1979, p. 113
Chapter VII
~^^1^^ Time, August 27, 1984, p. 7
~^^2^^ Here and further on---excerpts from official documents~
Chapter VIII
~^^1^^ U.S. News &World Report, March 5, 1984, p. 58
~^^2^^ The New York Times, March 30, 1984
~^^3^^ "What the Senate Didn't Know About Charles Z. Wick: How the USIA Chief Ran His Nursing Home Business", Mother Jones, November 1984, pp. 33-51
~^^4^^ Newsweek, March 12, 1984, p. 34
~^^5^^ "Nonconsensual Recording of Certain Telephone Conversations by USIA Director Charles Z. Wick". A Staff Report prepared for the Committee on Foreign Relations United States Senate, February 1 984, p. 1
~^^6^^ "Washington Phone-Tap Affair", The Times, January 9, 1984
~^^7^^ Philip Geyelin in International Herald Tribune, January 16, 1984
~^^8^^ Facts concerning RFE/RL employees have been taken from the Soviet press
~^^9^^ Der Spiegel, N. 51, 1977, S. 95-97
165~^^10^^ From a memorandum by G. Bensi and S. Mirsky entitled "To All Radio Liberty Employees"
~^^11^^ The Washington Post, November 23, 1981
~^^12^^ Horizont, N. 1, 1984, S. 5
~^^13^^ Ambartsum A. Khigatyan in Russky golos, February 23, 1984
Chapter IX
~^^1^^ According to Annex 2 (Definition of Terms) adopted by the Montreux 1965 International Telecommunication'Convention, `` telecommunication'' means "any transmission, emission or reception of signs, signals, writing, images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical or other electromagnetic systems''.
~^^2^^ International Convention Concerning the Use of Broadcasting in the Cause of Peace
~^^3^^ Bulletin No.16(2194) of the USSR Supreme Soviet for April 20, 1983, Moscow, p. 267
~^^4^^ International Telecommunication Convention, Montreux, 1965. Article 29, with Final Protocol, Additional Protocols I to III and Optional Additional Protocol of November 12, 1965 (with Additional Protocol IV of October 21, 1965). London, 1967, p. 62
~^^5^^ From Moscow University Bulletin XI, ``Journalism'', 1966, pp. 32-33
~^^6^^ Charter of the United Nations and Statute of the International Court of Jlistice, United Nations, New York, p. 1
~^^7^^ Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. I, 1971, p. 328
~^^8^^ The Guardian, January 30, 1977
~^^9^^ Based on the data of research by Dr. Emil Hoffmann (Law) provided by the Panorama news agency, the German Democratic Republic
~^^10^^ L. Oppenheim, H. Lauterpacht. International Law, Vol. 1, London, 1955, from page 292 on
~^^11^^ Karl Strupp und Hans-Jurgen Schlochauer. Worterbuch des Volkerrechts, Band II, Berlin, 1961, S. 808
~^^12^^ Grundgesetz fur die Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Bundeszentrale fiir politische Bildung, Bonn, 1976, S. 31
~^^13^^ Ibid.
Chapter X
~^^1^^ Herbert I. Schiller. The Free Flow of Information Benefits Whom? University of California, San Diego, 1973, pp. 1-2
166~^^2^^ CounterSpy, November 1980-January 1981, pp. 5,7
~^^3^^ Hearings before the US Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Ninety-Third Congress, First Session, May 7 and 8, 1973. US Government Printing Office, Washington, 1973, p. 7
~^^4^^ Statement of Paul R. Bartlett, Communications Consultant, before the Subcommittee on International Operations of the House Committee on International Relations. February 23, 1978, p. 7
~^^5^^ "Why Anti-Americanism Gains Ground in Europe?" U.S. News & World Report, December 20, 1982, p. 35
~^^6^^ USIA, 26th Review of Operations, January-June 1966, pp. 15-16
~^^7^^ Karl-Heinz Hansen. Radio Free---ein Kind des Kalten Krieges, Munchen, 1973, S. 6-7
~^^8^^ Ibid., p. 12 ^^3^^ Ibid., p. 14
~^^10^^ UNESCO, Records of the General Conference, Twentieth Session, Vol. I, Resolutions, p. 102
~^^11^^ Robert Dallek. Ronald Reagan. The Politics of Symbolism, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, London, 1984
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