p In the sixteenth century Russian literature produced many compilative works, both secular and religious, ideologically securing the unity of the Russian lands around the political, religious and cultural centre of Muscovy. Works of regional literatures were united and reworked, both ideologically and stylistically, to create one all-Russian literature with a common state and political significance.

At the initiative of Metropolitan Makaiy, and under his direction, a herculean labour of collecting religious writings and reworking their style and ideology was accomplished. Makary, who was tonsured at the Pafnuty-Borovsky Monastery, was a zealous follower of losif of Volotsk; by the order of Vasily III, who “loved him greatly”, Makary was appointed archbishop of Great Novgorod in 1526.

The Grand
Chetyi-Minei

p Here he began collecting and uniting all of the holy books to be found in the Russian land. Many scribes and writers were enlisted, among them Dmitry Gerasimov, with whom we are already familiar, and the nobleman Vasily Tuchkov. The first redaction of his Grand Chetyi-Minei (great menology) was composed in the course of twelve years (from 1529 to 1541) and placed in the Novgorod Cathedral of Saint Sophia as the archbishop’s contribution.

p When in 1542 he became metropolitan of all Rus, Makary was disinclined to support the boyar Shuisky who proposed him. Instead he worked to consolidate the autocratic powers of the Great Prince of Muscovy and in January of 1547 solemnly crowned the seventeen-year-old Ivan IV.

p In Moscow, Makary continued to work on his Chetyi-Minei and in 1547 and 1549 convened two Holy Conclaves of the Church for the canonisation of 255 locally revered saints. With this in mind he commissioned lives of losif of Volotsk and Makary of Kalyazin, Alexander of Svir and others. Both Conclaves canonised forty saints. This was not only a religious act, but one of great political significance, for it ideologically supported secular and religious authorities.

p After the Holy Conclaves, Makary commissioned new redactions of the lives of Alexander Nevsky, Sawa of Storozhevo and Metropolitan lona, among others. Sixty new vitae were written and introduced into the new redaction of his Chetyi-Minei which was completed in 1552 and placed in the Cathedral of the Dormition in the Moscow Kremlin; a second copy was presented in 1554 to Ivan IV.

These twelve enormous folios arranged according to the days of each month included both Russian and translated hagiography and sermons from the Emerald (Izmaragd), Golden Chain (Zolotaya tsep), Abbot DaniiPs Pilgrimage, Joseph Flavius’ Tale of the Destruction of Jerusalem and Kozma Indikoplov’s Cosmography. As a result the Grand Chetyi-Minei formed a unique encyclopedia of sixteenth century religious literature, providing ideological support for the political unification of former appanage principalities into a centralised state.

Russian Chronicles of
the Sixteenth Century

p The same role was played by Russian chronicle compilations including regional chronicles of former principalities and reworking them so that facts were evaluated from the political viewpoint of the Muscovite absolutism.

p In the 1540’s the Voskresensky Chronicle was compiled, telling the history of Rus from the moment when the Kiev state was formed up to 1541. But this chronicle did not entirely accord with the political interests of its day. Its compilers could not organically rework 256 material from regional chronicles and fully liquidate regional tendencies. They were not able to attain stylistic unity in their narration.

p These faults were overcome by the compilers of the Nikonovsky Chronicle from 1550 to 1570, which, in comparison with the Voskresensky Chronicle, includes a greater quantity of new material from regional chronicles. This material was subjected to profound ideological and stylistic reworking; it had one political conception and a unified style. The Nikonovsky Chronicle traces the idea of the succession of autocratic power from the first Kievan princes to Ivan IV, following their descent back to Augustus Caesar; it glorifies the Muscovite kingdom and its autocratic rulers as being elected by God. Events are recorded up to 1567. Historical facts are presented didactically, framed in a luxuriant rhetorical style.

p The chronicle constantly stresses that’ the Russian land and its rulers are protected by God; the greatness of the Russian state is proclaimed and its history is joined to the course of world history. With this purpose the Nikonovsky Chronicle makes much use of the World Chronicle (Khronograf) and alternates between yearly entries and the chronicles of world history. Much space is devoted to tales, linked to various years. For example the lives of Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry Ivanovich, the tales of the battle on the river Kalka, the arrival of Batu in Ryazan, the Battle of Kulikovo Field, the invasion of Tokhtamysh, the tale of Temir-Aksak, as well as translated tales of Alexander the Great, the Trojan War, and the destruction of Jerusalem are included.

p The Lvov Chronicle, telling of events up to 1560, is close to the Nikonovsky Chronicle.

In the 1570’s, on thebasis of the Nikonovsky Chronicle, a grandiose Nikonovsky Illustrated Compiled Chronicle (svod) was assembled. Ten thousand leaves have survived with 16,000 miniatures. It began with the creation of the world and aimed at confirming the universal grandeur of the Russian kingdom and its pious rulers. In its expression of the official ideology this 257 illustrated chronicle was a historical encyclopedia of sixteenth century Muscovy.   [257•1 

The Book of Generations

p On the initiative of Metropolitan Makary in 1563 the royal confessor Andrei-Afanasy composed the Book of Generations of the Tsar’s Genealogy ( Stepennaya kniga). This work attempts a systematic pragmatic presentation of the history of the Muscovite kingdom in the form of a family tree from Rurik, and then Vladimir Svyatoslavich to Ivan the Terrible inclusive.

p The history of the Russian state is told through the vitae of its rulers according to the degrees of kinship from the first Kievan princes, Rurik and Vladimir Svyatoslavich. The period of each prince’s rule comprises a distinct facet in history. In accordance with this, the Book of Generations is separated into seventeen degrees and facets; the introduction is an extended vita of Princess Olga. Each facet following the biographies of the princes tells of an important event of their times; the lives of such distinguished Church hierarchs as Petr, Aleksei and lona are also included.

p Personalities of the princes are the central focus in the narrative of the Book of Generations. Each one is characterised as an ideal, wise ruler, a courageous warrior and an exemplary Christian. Their images are monumental; the compilers of the Book of Generations try to stress the greatness of their deeds and the beauty of their virtues. Reviving medieval monumental style, they modernise it by introducing psychological descriptions of the characters, striving to show their inner world, pious thoughts in imaginary monologues and prayers.

p The theme of autocratic rule in Rus is consistently presented; allegedly this form of rule was established by the first princes to take the scepter. Their rule is surrounded by an aureole of holiness and the necessity for unquestioning, absolute obedience to these rulers is proven; the unity of state and Church is also stressed.

p Historical material is presented in a splendid rhetorical panegyric to the “Divine tree" of the autocratic line of Rurik.

Both in the Book of Generations and in the chronicles historical material took on topical political and polemical resonance; it was subordinated to the goals of the ideological struggle for the consolidation of the autocratic rule of one Russian sovereign. Both the chronicles and the Book of Generations were official historical documents, providing a basis for sixteenth century Muscovite diplomats to hold talks in the international arena. They proved the right of the Muscovite princes to rule over the Russian lands once adjoined to the Kievan state, and the sovereignty of the Muscovite kingdom, its right to a leading role in European politics.   [258•1 

The Domostroi

p Among the compilative works of the sixteenth century is the Domostroi (Household Management) attributed to the priest Silvestr. Its purpose was to regulate people’s behaviour both in state and family life. Each citizen’s obligations to Church and tsar are clearly defined and the idea of absolute obedience to the tsar is stressed.

p One imporant part of the Domostroi is the chapter “On Worldly Life, How to Live with Wife, Children and Servants”. Just as the tsar is the supreme lord of his subjects, the man is the lord of the family. He is responsible before God and the tsar for his family and the upbringing of his sons to be faithful servants of the 259 state. The Domostroi recommends one method of bringing them up to be loyal and obedient: the rod. “If you love your son, increase his wounds and later you will rejoice in him.... Punish children when they are young and you will have a peaceful old age. Don’t give them authority in their youth but crack a few ribs....”

p Another of a man’s obligations is to “teach” his wife, who should manage the household and bring up the daughters. Her will and personality is to be subordinate to that of her husband. Women’s behaviour, whether at home or among friends, is strictly regulated as is the system of punishment. A lazy wife should first be “reasoned with”. If verbal warnings give no result the man should put fear into his wife according to her guilt. The Domostroi also proposes rules for servants sent to a strange home, as well as practical advice for conducting a household: how to keep the home clean and convenient, how to hang icons and keep them clean, how to prepare food.

p Thus the Domostroi was not only a set of rules for wealthy men of the sixteenth century, but the first encyclopedia of the household. It is valuable for its broad reflection of Russian daily life and language in the sixteenth century.

p On Ivan IV’s command and with the participation of Metropolitan Makary in 1551 the Conclave of the Hundred Chapters (Stoglavy sobor) was called to discuss the regulation of ecclesiastical and moral life; the Conclave came to be known as Stoglavy because the Novoye sobornoye ulozhenie (New Church Codex or Stoglav) adopted there, containing the tsar’s questions and the answers of the Conclave “regarding the many rules of the Church”, was divided into 100 chapters.

p Like the Domostroi the Stoglav gives a vivid idea of the life of Russia in the mid-sixteenth century. The Conclave noted the presence and use of many uncorrected books and ordered presbyters and elders to supervise the work of scribes.

p One of the reasons for the advent of printed books was apparently this great number of incorrect texts copied from poor translations; the church wanted to make sure that “in the future holy books would be 260 properly copied”. A year after the Conclave of the Hundred Chapters in 1553 the Printing House was begun; no later than 1555 the first church books were printed. In 1564 Ivan Fedorov and his helper Petr Mstislavets “in order to purify and correct unscholarly and poorly copied books" published an Apostol (writings of the Apostles) and the Chasoslov (Book of Hours) in 1565, designed for teaching people to read. The Royal Printing House and the new printed books had a great cultural significance. Soon Ivan Fedorov and Petr Mstislavets left Muscovy and resettled in Lithuania for reasons that are unclear. In 1574 Ivan Fedorov built a printing establishment in Lvov where he published an Apostol and a Primer; he then moved to Ostrog and published a Bible in 1581.

p In the late 1560’s a printing press was built at Aleksandrova Sloboda in Russia where Ivan Fedorov’s example was continued by his students A. TimofeyevNevezha and N. Tarasyev.

This was the start of printing in Russia.