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a) The Concepts of Opposite and Contradiction

p Each thing has an infinite multitude of aspects which interact and cause changes in one another. These changes move in similar, different or opposite directions; they may reflect one and the same or different trends.

p Aspects in which changes move in opposite directions and which have opposite trends of funcJionina and deuelnnment are called, oyyosites, while the interaction of these aspects constitutes a contradiction.

The processes of assimilation and dissimilation in a living organism, for example, are opposites. Assimilation constitutes a trend towards creating certain component parts of an organism out of substances in the environment, while dissimilation is a trend towards decay or decomposition. Antagonistic classes, such as the proletariat and the bourgeoisie under capitalism, constitute another example. These classes have directly opposite interests and patterns of action. Indeed, the proletariat is waging a continuous struggle for wage increases, whereas the bourgeoisie is always 260 seeking wage cuts. The proletariat wants its representatives to be elected to legislative bodies, while the bourgeoisie does its best to prevent this.

b) The Unity of Opposites

p Though opposites have different trends of functioning and development and different directions of change, thereby excluding each other, they do not eliminate each other, but co-exist in an ( unbreakable) unity and interdependence. Assimilation and dissimilation in a living organism are interconnected and presuppose each other. The proletariat and the bourgeoisie in capitalist society are intrinsically interconnected, too. The bourgeoisie cannot exist as a class without the proletariat and, vice versa, the proletariat disappears as an exploited class together with the elimination of the bourgeoisie, and turns into the working class of socialist society.

p The way in which opposites presuppose each other and are inseparably interconnected is a major form through which their unity manifests itself.

p A certain degree of coincidence between some of their aspects and the presence of common properties constitute another form through which the unity of opposites is revealed. Since opposites are aspects of one and the same thing and characterise one and the same essence, they must have something in common and a number of their properties must coincide. The north and south poles of a magnet, for instance, are aspects of one and 261 the same physical phenomenon, of one and the same essence.

p Being different aspects of one and the same thing, opposites not only exclude, but also interpenetrate each other; they not only express the difference betweenThe inseparably interconnected aspects, but also their identity.

p The identity of the quantitative characteristics of opposites is expressed, in particular, in the form of the equilibrium or balance of forces. The balance of opposites manifests itself at a certain stage in the development of a contradiction, when an equilibrium of opposite forces and trends sets in. The correlation of revolutionary and counter- revolutionary forces in Russia in October 1905 is an example of the balance of opposites. Tsarism at that time was, as Lenin put it, “no longer strong enough”, while “the revolution [was] not yet strong enough to win".  [261•1  The balance of forces does not mean that the “struggle” of opposites fades away or becomes weaker. On the contrary, at that stage in the development of contradictions the “struggle” of opposites becomes especially acute.

p The transition of opposites into each other when they exchange places is the supreme manifestation of the identity of opposites. The transformation of the proletariat into the dominant class and the bourgeoisie into the suppressed class is a relevant example with respect to the class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

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The moment at which opposites pass into each other is the culmination in the development of opposites. At this stage, the contradiction is solved and the thing passes from one qualitative state into another. Taking account of the special importance of this moment in the development of a contradiction, of this manifestation of the identity of opposites, Lenin defined dialectics as the study of the identity of opposites, of the laws governing their passing into one another. “Dialectics,” he wrote, “is the teaching which shows how opposites can be and how they happen to be (how they become) identical,-under what conditions they are identical, becoming transformed into one another, -why the human mind should grasp these opposites not as dead, rigid, but as living, conditional, mobile, becoming transformed into one another.”  [262•1 

c) The Relativity of the Unity
and the Absoluteness of the “Struggle”
of Opposites

p Contradiction, being the interaction of opposites, includes both their “struggle” and their unity. These two aspects of the essence of contradiction, however, are not equal: the “struggle” plavs the leading role. It is absolute, just as the motion it .Causes. The Unity, on the, r.thpr hand is rp1aHvp 

p The absoluteness of the “struggle” of opposites is expressed in the fact that struggle is involved at every stage in the existence of a thing and its transformation into something else. It takes place 263 at the emergence of any concrete unity resulting from the “struggle” of opposite forces or trends. It exists within the unity, causing its emergence and development. It is present and is especially pronounced when this unity breaks down and a new one appears. It is the “struggle” of opposites that causes the disintegration of the old unity and its replacement by a new one, corresponding more closely to the new environment.

p In contrast to the “struggle”, the unity of opposites is temporary. After emerging as a result of this “struggle”, it exists for a certain time, until the relevant contradiction matures and is resolved. Then the unity disappears, giving way to a new one. The latter, having existed for a certain period, also breaks down and is replaced by another as a result of the “struggle” of the opposites inherent in it. This process goes on ad infinitum. Unity, therefore, changes, while the “struggle” remains. Existing within each one of the consecutively changing unities, the “struggle” is also a link connecting one unity with another and ensuring historical continuity in the development process.

The relativity of the unity, therefore, is expressed through its temporary existence, through its transient nature. But there are other forms in which the unity’s relativity is manifested, such as the incomplete coincidence of opposites, the incomplete coordination in their functioning and development, and, lastly, the transient nature of their balance.

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d) Contradiction and Difference

p We defined contradiction as the interaction of opposites, by which we mean a mature contradiction. As a rule, however, a contradiction does not appear in a ready-made form. It first emerges and exists in an immature form. Difference is the universal form of

p tradiction. Difference is the first, immature form through which contradiction manifests itself.

p Not any difference, however, is a contradiction. There are differences everywhere, between all phenomena and all the aspects of one and the same phenomenon. If all differences were contradictions, it would be impossible to isolate any other connections and relations apart from contradictions, which would be the only form of interconnection between objects and their aspects. Meanwhile, other forms of relations and connections, besides contradictions, such as harmony, coordination, correspondence, and so on, exist in objective reality.

.Only a difference that involves a divergence of jrends or directions of change, in particular interacting aspects or phenomena, is called a contradiction.ln other words, only aspects that have different trends, different directions of change and development form a contradiction. There are essential differences, for instance, between separate branches of socialist production, but there may be no contradiction between them if there is the necessary correspondence in their functioning and development. A contradiction arises only when 265 different trends or a certain discord begin to appear in the course of development of these branches due to the inefficiency of planning or economic organisations.

e) The Universality of Contradictions

p Metaphysicists, Hpny ths universality of contradictions. Some, including the German philosbpher Nicolai Hartmann, believe that all being is not contradictory in nature and that “neither what exists in itself, nor the mind in itself is contradictory, but the requirement that the mind should, embrace all that exists, without exception".  [265•1  Others, such as Sydney Hook, recognise the existence oT contradictions in the mind only, rejecting their existence in the outside world.

p As distinct from metaphysicists, dialectical materialists hold that contradictions are universal. They exist in any field ot reality and in any material entity as testified by scientific data and social experience. In mechanics, for instance, there is action and counter-action, in electricity- negative and positive charges, in magnetism-the South and North poles, in mathematics-plus and minus. Modern physics has ch^W fofit thff nature of “ elementary" particles is contradictory. An electron and a photon, for instance, constitute the unity of a wave and a corpuscle. An frfrtm tr™, 15- n unity of opposites, with electrons, protons, and 266 other particles interacting within it. Contradictoriness is a necessary condition for the existence of living organisms as well. Any living organism functions and develops on the basis of the interaction of such opposite processes as assimilation and dissimilation. Contradictions between consumption and production, and between the productive forces and production relations, are inherent in society. In knowledge, too, there are contradictions between analysis and synthesis, the objective and the subjective, the abstract and the concrete, etc.

Thus, contradictions are present in any field of reality. Contradictoriness is universal. It is intrinsic in all that exists in reality and consciousness.

f) Contradiction—the Source of the Motion
and development of Reality

The source of the motion and development of matter and knowledge constitutes an exceptionally complex problem over which many philosophers have racked their brains in the past. They did not recognise the contradictoriness of being and were compelled, therefore, either to reject motion, or turn to God, declaring Him the final cause of all changes in the world. Heraclitus was the first to propose that contradiction is the source of motion. Hegel, however, developed this idea on an idealistic basis, with respect to pure thought, but only dialectical materialism substantiated this proposition on a truly scientific basis. Engels formulated it in the following way: motion “...by

267 the continual conflict of opposites and their final passage into one another, or into higher forms, determines the life of nature".  [267•1 

p How does contradiction act as a source of motion and development? Contradiction, as we have already noted, is the interaction of opposites. The Action of one opposite force on another, however, Tnvariably involves relevant changes in the interacting aspects of a thlflft. and also in the thing itself. This means that the very existence of contradictions presupposes the motion and also the development, under relevant conditions, of the corresponding phenomena.

The interaction of such opposite aspects of society’s life as production and consumption, for instance, inevitably causes changes in each of them, and then in society as a whole. In this way people’s requirements influence and change production, which takes account of these requirements and develops in the required direction. As production develops, however, so do requirementssome are replaced by new ones, which set production new objectives. Attaining them, production develops further and becomes more advanced, and so do requirements. The changed requirements set production yet new objectives, so production changes again, and this goes on ad infiniturn. The interaction of production and consumption thus underlies the continual change in production and requirements. At a certain stage in the development of society, a need arises for 268 improving the production relations within which production functioned, and for abolishing one form of ownership of the means of production in favour of another. Changes in the relations of production correspondingly reshape the entire social organism and bring society to a new, higher stage of development. In this way the interaction of opposites causes phenomena to change and pass into a new qualitative state. All this is a graphic illustration of how contradiction acts as a source of the motion and development of matter and consciousness.

g) Types of Contradiction

p Every phenomenon has a multitude of different contradictions. Their roles in its existence and development are far from equal, so the need arises to classify contradictions.

p The following types of contradiction are usualJy distinguished: internal and external, essential and non-essential, basic and non-basic.

p The interaction oi the opposite aspects inherent in one and the same phenomenon is called arTinternal contradiction, whereas that of the opposite aspects inherent in different phenomena is called an external contradiction.

p The interaction of electrons and protons in an atom, assimilation and dissimilation in a living organism, the productive forces and production relations in society, are all examples of internal contradictions. Contradictions between society and nature, between individual animals of different 269 species, and so on, are external contradictions.

p Internal and external contradictions play different roles in the development of a phenomenon. Internal contradictions play a decisive role, for tneii development and resolution cause a thing to ^ass into a new qualitative state, a new stage of ’development. External contradictions also exert a pronounced influence on the development of a thing, but this jpftiienrp matprialises through internal contradictions-it may be positive or negative, it may speed up or slow down the development. The interaction of a particular living organism with the environment may either enhance its development or cause its death, depending on the actual conditions under which this organism lives.

p The interaction oi opposite aspects oi the essence oi an object is called an essential contradiction, ufheFeas that of the Qpyusile aspects oi accidental connections and, relations is a non- essential contradiction.

p The contradiction between the social nature of production and the private form of appropriation in capitalist society is an example of an essential contradiction, since it characterises the essence of the capitalist mode of production. Contradictions between bourgeois parties battling for votes during an election campaign or contradictions between various sectors of socialist production are nonessential contradictions, for they do not concern the essence of the phenomena in question nor characterise this essence.

p Essential contradictions play a decisive role in the development of things. Their resolution alone 270 leads to a change in the essence of an object and to its transformation into a new object. As regards non-essential contradictions, their resolution does not change the prevalent situation. The elimination of contradictions between certain bourgeois parties, for instance, does not affect the essence of capitalist society, which remains the same. As regards the contradiction between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, however, its resolution changes the essence of the social system and causes the transformation of capitalism into socialism.

p Essential contradictions are subdivided into basic and non-basic. Contradictions that determine all the more or less essential aspects of a phenomenon, playing this role at every stage of its development, are called basic. Contradictions that characterise one particular aspect of a phenomenon are non-basic. The contradiction between the social nature of production and the private form of appropriation in capitalist society, for example, and that between “dying capitalism and nascent communism"  [270•1  during the transition from capitalism to socialism, are basic contradictions. The contradictions between town and countryside, between mental and physical labour inherent in capitalist society and characterising only separate aspects of society’s life, rather than society as a whole, are non-basic contradictions.

p The above types of contradiction are intrinsic to all fields of reality. Emerging in a certain 271

h) Antagonistic and Non-antagonistic Contradictions

p Contradictions between classes or other social groups that have opposite interests are antagonist-^ ’ic, while contradictions between classes or other social groups that have common interests a* te.- gaids vital problems are non-antaaonistic.

p Contradictions between slaves and slaveowners, peasants and landlords, the proletariat and the bourgeoisie are antagonistic, while contradictions between the working class and the peasantry, and between various socialist countries, are non-antagonistic.

p Antagonistic contradictions are characterised by the fact that when they are resolved the unity within which they existed is eliminated. Thus, the resolution of the contradiction between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie brings abon<- t-Vic transformation of capitalism, in which this contradiction was inherent, into socialist society.

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p The situation is quite different with non- antagonistic contradictions. Their resolution does not jliminate the unity within which they existed, but rather strengthens and consolidates it. When the essential differences between the working class and the peasantry, for instance, are overcome, socialist society is not eliminated but becomes more monolithic, mature and perfect

p Since irreconcilable class interests underlie antagonistic contradictions, the latter, as a rule, have a tendency to intensify. It does not follow, however, that this tendency manifests itself in all cases, under all circumstances. Conditions may obtain which paralyse this tendency and the antagonistic contradiction, resolved step by step, will ease off, rather than intensify. The development and resolution of the antagonistic contradictions between the national bourgeoisie and the working class in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam is a relevant example. The above contradictions ease off as they are gradually resolved.

p In contrast to antagonistic contradictions, nonantagonistic ones do not tend to intensify. On the contrary, since the social groups representing the aspects of these contradictions are interested in ensuring society’s further progress, the contradictions tend to ease off, smooth out and become resolved, without reaching extreme forms.

p Antagonistic contradictions are resolved through an acute class struggle, whereas non-antagonistic contradictions are overcome by persuasion, criticism and self-criticism. This in no way means that such methods cannot be employed under certain 273 conditions to resolve antagonistic contradictions. When the bourgeoisie realises the senselessness and futility of resisting the advance of society towards socialism, the antagonistic

tions between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat may be resolved by peaceful means, by resorting to persuasion and re-education on a wide scale of that section of the bourgeoisie that accepts socialist transformations and cooperates on a voluntary basis with the proletariat and other groups of the working people. The experience of transforming private capitalist enterprises in the German Democratic Republic and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam are examples of the widespread use of persuasion and re-education in overcoming antagonistic contradictions.