p The steady progress of science and technology is only one aspect of the matter. The other, in all its diversity, consists in the fact that scientific and technological progress, now as before, does not occur isolatedly from social life, but is closely linked with social progress. In the socialist countries scientific and technological progress is not an end in itself; it aims at establishing and developing the most perfect social relations, at attaining profound social progress freeing man not only from all forms of class oppression, but from his dependence on the forces of nature. These two phenomena are inseparable.

p History provides no few instances of civilised states and nations that were unable to make timely use of great scientific and technological discoveries and found themselves in extremely difficult straits. As a result there were no few tragic consequences, when, owing to backwardness or failure to keep in step with the times, or through opposition to such progress on the part of reactionary forces, entire states were wiped off the map and mighty empires disappeared. History in this respect is the severest and most ruthless of judges. Such a disaster all but overtook Russia. At a time when already in the 18th century countries like England and France had come forward upon the world scene as a result of scientific and technological progress, Russia was vegetating, lagging far behind. She was heading for national disaster. Russia was saved by the October Revolution, which turned her into a mighty socialist power.

p With the emergence of science as a special sphere of social activity the history of man shows that social and scientific progress—through contradictions, destructive catastrophes and wars—went, on the whole, hand in hand. Great geographical discoveries served as the prologue to 26 the capitalist development of Europe. They gave a powerful impetus to the advancement of scientific knowledge in the field of astronomy, celestial and terrestrial mechanics, hydrostatics and hydrodynamics, which made it possible to summarise and make a real study of world practice in scientific and technological development. It was at this period that the foundations of the modern natural science were laid and their direct bearing on the productive sphere was made secure.

p The growth of that day’s science contributed to the technical reorganisation of capitalist production and to the creation of the material facilities for the rapid development of the productive forces. This was abundantly borne out by the industrial revolution in England, which finally consolidated the capitalist mode of production. The progress of science since then has been more rapid, inasmuch as science itself proved to be a field for profitable investment of capital. This became more and more obvious. Engels remarked that "a single achievement of science like James Watt’s steam-engine has brought in more for the world in the first fifty years of its existence than the world has spent on the promotion of science since the beginning of time".  [26•*  Subsequent events, however, showed that restrictions to the advancement of science were largely rooted in social conditions, in the system of capitalist relationships. In this connection it would be useful to dwell on certain features of the present scientific and technological revolution, particularly on the bearing which it has on the social processes that are taking place in the modern world.

p The first feature of the unfolding scientific and technological revolution is that it is taking place in the epoch of revolutionary transition from capitalism to socialism as distinct from the scientific and technological revolutions which developed during the transition from feudalism to capitalism or on the basis of capitalism and led to the establishment of capitalism. One aspect of the great revolutionary process is that the scientific and technological revolution of our day leads ultimately to the consolidation of socialism and is a condition of its victory on a worldwide scale.

p The second feature of the modern scientific and 27 technological revolution is that, in a way, it forms the pivot of the struggle that has developed between the two worlds, between the two different types of system—the socialist and the capitalist. Under these conditions the scientific and technological revolution, its results and conclusions, become a double-edged weapon to be used alike by the forces of progress in the interest of civilisation and continued prosperity or by the forces of reaction for the nefarious purpose of violence and destruction. The two systems are engaged in a stupendous competition and struggle also in the sphere of science and technology. It is natural, therefore, that each system, each country, strives to beat the other in this contest, tries to increase its power. This accounts for the extremely acute nature of the struggle around the problems of the scientific and technological revolution and reveals the very close relation which exists between technical progress and social progress..

p The third feature of the scientific and technological revolution of our day is that it is universal in character. Where, formerly, such revolutions used to take place in separate fields of science or technology, today we find it penetrating into all scientific and technological fields embracing the whole productive and economic sphere of life. Therefore, every new discovery switches scientific and technical progress into still higher gear. At the same time the revolution in science merges organically with the revolution in production into a single revolutionary process, in the course of which science more and more actively influences all aspects of socio-economic development.

p The societal impact of the scientific and technological revolution is making itself felt more and more, and in view of this Marxist-Leninist theory acquires greater significance for all other fields of knowledge and for people’s practical activity. The need for a correct social theory has become still greater not only in the countries of socialism, but in the capitalist countries where a growing number of progressive intellectuals, public figures and rank-and-file workers gravitate towards social as well as scientific and technological progress.

p The question arises, which of these aspects should enjoy priority—technological progress or social progress?

p Marxists-Leninists treat this matter dialectically, from class positions, in the context of all its interrelations and 28 interdependence. This is what Wilhelm Liebknecht wrote about his conversation with Marx (in 1850) on the subject of the scientific and technological revolution: "The conversation turned on the natural sciences and Marx spoke ironically about the triumphant reaction that reigned in Europe and which imagined it had crushed the revolution, little suspecting that the advance in the natural sciences was preparing a new revolution. King Steam, which in the preceding century had turned the world upside down, is now quitting the stage and yielding its place to an infinitely stronger revolution—the electric spark. Marx, glowing with enthusiasm, told me that a model of an electrical machine which drives a train had been on show for several days in Regent Street. ’The problem is now solved; the results are unimaginable. The economic revolution is bound to be followed by a political revolution, of which it is merely a manifestation."”  [28•*  (Italics are mine.—S.T.)

p What brilliant prevision! King Steam did turn upside down not only the material basis, but the entire way of social life. The revolutionary force of steam was well described by Engels. In his article "The Beginning of the End in ‘Austria” he wrote: " ’Myself and Metternich she [Austria] can still stand,’ said the late Kaiser Franz. Indeed, she stood the French Revolution, Napoleon and the July storms. But she cannot stand up to Steam. Steam has broken its way through the Alps and the Bohemian Forest, Steam has robbed the Danube of its role, Steam has shattered Austrian barbarism and cut the ground from under the feet of the House of Hapsburg.

p “The European and American public can now have the satisfaction of seeing Metternich and the whole Hapsburg dynasty smashed by the wheels of the steam engine, seeing the Austrian monarchy cut to pieces by its own locomotives. A truly merry spectacle.”  [28•** 

p Marx and Engels were not in a position to analyse the significance of electric power in the material basis and social life in all its details the way they did in the case of steam with its machines and big industry. Electric power underwent its first trials towards the end of their lives. 29 Nevertheless, they closely followed the experiments of Faraday, who in 1831 discovered electromagnetic induction, which subsequently launched the electric motor on its victorious career. They closely followed the experiments of the French engineer and scientist Marcel Deprez, who discovered hightension currents and long-distance transmission of electric energy. And when, at the first world electrical congress in Paris in 1881, most of the scientists attacked Deprez for his frivolous contention that electricity could be transmitted through thin wires over any distance, Marx and Engels came out strongly in his defence and were the first to appreciate his brilliant discovery.

p “Science," Engels wrote, "was for Marx an historic revolutionary motive force. Whatever pure joy he derived from every new discovery in any theoretical science whose practical application very often could not even be predicted, this joy was of quite a different kind when it concerned discoveries that had an immediate revolutionary effect in industry, in historical development generally. He had followed closely the progress of discoveries in the field of electricity, and latterly the discoveries of Marcel Deprez.”  [29•* 

p Thus, Marx and Engels were the first to show that a new potent force—electric energy—was coming to take the place of steam, a force that bore upon its shoulders a gigantic revolution not only in the material basis, but in the whole socio-economic way of living. They clearly foresaw that the productive forces could no longer be kept within the limits of the bourgeois system and that the social explosion would find new and powerful support in the material basis.

What Marx and Engels left undone was completed with honour and merit by Lenin. And when, at the turn of our century, voices were raised everywhere about the crisis of physics, about the “disappearance” of matter, he showed most convincingly that on the basis of electric power mankind was already approaching the stage when it would use the inexhaustible and mighty forces of nature on the basis of intra-atomic energy, which was bound to involve a revolution in all spheres of life the like of which the world had never known. And when the Great October Socialist Revolution occurred Lenin inscribed upon its banner the words:

p It is clear from the foregoing that in the history of the development of social thought the founders of scientific communism were the first to perceive and make out a scientific case for the existence of organic ties between scientific and technological progress and social progress. Another thing they clearly saw was that scientific and technological revolutions best contributed to the awakening and shaping of the socio-political forces, which were bound to pronounce the just verdict of history in the name of liberation of all mankind from slavery and violence. Therefore, those who draw a line between scientific and technological revolutions and social revolutions, those who try to construe the present scientific and technological revolution as a perpetual process without end, are deeply wrong. Such theoreticians, whether they want to or not, are helping to wean the advanced revolutionary forces away from the struggle to bring about radical social upheavals.

p Yes, tremendous social changes are taking place in present-day society. Yet its development is moving in the direction predicted by the great founders of scientific communism. They demonstrated that there is only one class in the world—the working class, capable of making sure that technological progress serves social progress, serves the cause of the workers’ emancipation from exploitation and slavery. In turn, "the more ruthlessly and disinterestedly science proceeds the more it finds itself in harmony with the interests and aspirations of the workers”.  [30•**  That class still remains the most organised, the most revolutionary, the most revolutionising and victorious class.

p The bourgeoisie in this respect is exceedingly egoistic. It, too, stands for technological progress, but for a kind of progress that would not involve profound social changes. These conservative traits of the bourgeoisie were in evidence before, during the heyday of its rule. Now they have grown not only more conservative, but more reactionary. Take, for example, the actions of the imperialist bourgeoisie in the countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America. They will not yield here one iota of their interests or surrender their 31 controlling privileges. And not only on these continents. The imperialist bourgeoisie everywhere, overtly or covertly, acts now as always as dictator, as the suppressor of liberties, progress and the liberation movement of the peoples. Nevertheless the historical, objective processes are inexorable. History teaches that where technological progress was unaccompanied by social progress, it assumed ugly forms and ultimately came to a stand without gaining scope. And, vice versa, when technological progress went hand in hand with social progress, science and society advanced with rapid strides.

p Scientific and technological progress speeds up the growth of society’s productive forces. Consequently, in antagonistic formations it sharpens the contradictions between the productive forces of society and the relations of production. This eventually leads to revolutionary changes in the latter, which in turn opens the way for the further growth of the productive forces. Just as scientific and technological progress combined with social progress led in its time to a serious reconstitution of society’s socio-economic system, which established the dominance of capitalism, so did these developments subsequently lead to the break-up of the old, capitalist relations of production and the creation of new, socialist relations which now govern the lives of one-third of the world’s population.

p Thus, the history of man convincingly shows that real scientific and technological progress is conceivable only when combined with social progress. In turn, by merging into a single great process, these two tendencies set into motion not only wide circles of the intelligentsia, but the million-strong masses of the workers and peasants on all the world’s continents. This happened before and is happening again in our day.

p The present scientific and technological revolution is attended by a gigantic break-up of the whole colonial system, by a movement towards national and social liberation among the oppressed peoples of Africa, Asia and Latin America. No power can halt this great revolutionary process, which will continue to gain breadth and strength until the oppressed peoples win complete political, economic and spiritual freedom and equality.

p In the capitalist countries the scientific and technological revolution is accompanied by the consolidation of the 32 working class and of all progressive forces. Imperialism is exposed to very strong pressures, which are eroding its rotting socioeconomic foundations, and we are witnessing an accelerated process of maturation of such favourable objective conditions and such subjective factors as will make it easier for the revolutionary forces to win their fight. At the same time the scientific and technological revolution is attended in the capitalist world by processes which seriously affect the social structure and the line-up of class forces, and create, on the one hand, conditions for strengthening the anti-imperialist union of the working people, and, on the other, a certain basis for the spread of opportunism and the influence of bourgeois ideology on the working class.

p Scientific and technological progress involves mass retraining. Modern techniques call for skilled and well-trained workers. In capitalist society this process involves displacement of some of the workers, especially those of more advanced age. There is created a whole class of the “ redundant” who can find no use for their powers and skills. A large section of working-class youth are unable to receive a training to meet modern requirements and they start life as unemployed without any prospects for the future. They may find themselves drawn into conscious revolutionary activities or anarchistic revolt.

p Scientific and technological progress in the Soviet Union is achieved in complete harmony with great social progress, which leads Soviet society to the heights of human civilisation. It serves the interests of construction of a new, hitherto unheard-of type of society known as communism. Socialism provides unlimited scope for the development of science and technology and for a more rapid rate of progress than any other pre-socialist system of society. This accounts for the striking fact that our country, in the recent past one of the most backward in Europe economically and culturally, has, during the years of Soviet government, made a great leap forward in its development and is today a land of advanced science and technology.

p The scientific and technological revolution is a domain in which the advantages of the socialist system over the capitalist system of society are demonstrated most clearly and convincingly. It would be an unforgivable mistake, however, to simplify the problems in this field. Considerable though the achievements of Soviet science and technology 33 may be, and strong though its key positions in a number of important fields of modern world science, our country still has to tackle new and formidable problems in carrying out the scientific and technological revolution. It is important to realise the full complexity of the great revolution in science and technology that is taking place in the world today.

It will always be a mistake to approach these great, profound and life-transforming processes one-sidedly. It should be remembered that the scientific and technological revolution does not only serve the cause of social progress, the cause of communism; its achievements are widely used by the imperialist states to build up their economic and military potential,  [33•*  and to further their reactionary, anti-humanistic goals. Therefore, life, the interests of communist construction call for a further and more rapid advancement in all fields of science, their more rapid and effective use in the interest of development of the productive forces of socialist society.