p Forms of direct democracy. Thus far we have dealt wilh the work of Soviets as representative bodies of state power. But their many-sided and fruitful activity does not in the least exclude the developmenl of olher forms of democracy. Moreover, Ihe experience of the Soviet state proves the fact that socialism makes for a harmonious combinalion of representative and direct democracy. It is this combination that ensures the gradual formation of communist public self-administration.

p Let us briefly examine what is meanl by direcl democracy and ils most widespread forms in the U.S.S.R.

p In socialist society direct democracy is taken to mean public initiative in Ihe administration of the stale, the direct expression of the people’s will in the decisions passed by the governmenl, and also Ihe people’s direct participation in implementing and in controlling the fulfilment of these decisions.  [121•*  In our opinion, this definition best of all describes Ihe scope and diversity of direct democracy.

p However, it would be incorrect to overestimate the significance of direct democracy or to follow in the foolsteps of some political thinkers and philosophers of the past in believing that it is the best or even the only means open to the people for exercising their sovereignty.

p In modern society Ihe representative system obviously cannot be substituted by direct democracy. The latter can be implemented only in a small patriarchal state where Ihe entire population can be easily summoned to a meeting for direct participation in stale affairs.

p It is all the more difficult to organise state power along the lines of direcl democracy in a large socialist state, 122 where administration is founded primarily on scientific foresight and centralised planned development of the entire economy.

p Yet, as expressed by the direct participation of citizens in legislation and administration, direct democracy has its positive aspects. It makes it possible to draw the widest sections of the people into the administration of the state and society. For that reason the all-round development and consolidation of the Soviets is accompanied by the development of direct democracy, of which there are many forms in the Soviet Union.

p These forms became widespread literally speaking in the very first days following the establishment of Soviet Government. In those days the people had just taken power into their own hands and expressed their revolutionary will at non-Party congresses and conferences, in referendums, electors’ meetings and village rallies.

p The present Constitution was discussed by the whole country in 1936.

p In the post-war years there were nation-wide discussions of the draft state pension law, the further development of the collective-farm system, public education and other matters, including the drafts of the fundamentals of civil and criminal legislation and the civil and criminal codes of the Union Republics, matrimonial laws, legislation on guardianship, and labour, housing, business and administrative law.

p In 1965, the whole country took part in discussing improvement of economic management and planning, and the provision of economic incentives in industrial production. The results of this discussion were incorporated in the Law on Changes in System of Industrial Management that was adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the U.S.S.R. on October 2, 1965.

p Nation-wide discussions played an important role in determining the targets of the seven-year economic development plan (1959-65) and the draft Directives for the Five-Year Economic Development Plan for 1966-70.

p Millions of people submitted suggestions and recommendations during the nation-wide discussions of the most important bills in the post-war years. Many of these recommendations were included in the corresponding laws, and 123 others were referred to ministries, central departments and local government organs for implementation. At present more and more drafts of various decisions are being discussed locally. As we have already said, before holding their sessions the Executive Committees of many regional and town Soviets make public in the press and through other information media the drafts of decisions they intend to take. As a result, citizens are able to familiarise themselves beforehand with these drafts and submit their recommendations or suggestions.

p The discussion by the people of bills and other decisions both of nation-wide and of local significance will subsequently become a system. The most important bills will be subject to popular vote, and this envisages not only discussion but also direct voting by the people for or against a given bill.

p Congresses and conferences of working people are likewise a form of direct democracy. These are primarily allUnion and republican conferences of front-rank workers and specialists, and also branch congresses and conferences held in the centre or locally. Statistics show that in the period 1951-62 the number (320 with more than 400,000 participants) of such conferences held annually had increased sevenfold as compared with 1924-51.

p Although these forums have no plenary powers, they are, nevertheless, of great importance, for through them Soviet state organs consult with the people and take into account their experience. Many key issues which were subsequently legislatively resolved were raised at these forums.

p Meetings of citizens are another form of direct democracy. At present they are usually electors’ and rural rallies.

p Electors’ meetings hear deputies’ reports concerning the work of a given Soviet, draw up recommendations regarding the work of various state organs and, what is most important, issue mandates.

p Rural rallies, which are general meetings of citizens living in rural localities, have fairly wide rights. They submit suggestions concerning decisions to be taken by higher organs, recommendations regarding the nomination of candidates to Soviets and people’s courts, and the election of people’s assessors. Moreover, they pass decisions whose observance is obligatory, as in the case of 124 self-taxation. Such decisions adopted at rural rallies are not subject to confirmation by any state organ and can be revoked only if they prove to be inadvisable.

p The Soviet Government encourages the initiative of rural rallies, viewing them as an active form of drawing people into the administration of the state and society.

p The existing forms of direct democracy promote the realisation of Lenin’s proposition that every citizen should be afforded the opportunity to take part in discussing state legislation, in electing representatives and in executing laws.

p Obviously, the further practice of state development will suggest new forms of popular participation in discussing and directly solving problems of communist construction and improving the Soviet apparatus and Soviet legislation.

p Interaction of the representative system with direct democracy. As we have already mentioned, in socialist society popular representation does not clash with direct democracy. What we have in mind is their judicious combination or, to be precise, close interaction, which is a means of ensuring the sovereignty of the people.

p Soviet representative organs are the fundamental, leading form of ascertaining and legislatively embodying the will of the people.

p But a close scrutiny of the work of any Soviet immediately reveals that a representative organ is dependent on and widely uses various forms of direct democracy, of direct expression of the will of the citizens.

p This fact is manifested already during the drawing up and adoption of state decisions, when the working people and their organisations display broad initiative and independent activity.

p Individual citizens, workers’ collectives and mass organisations raise questions requiring government decisions, and actively participate in discussing projected measures. In this way the people’s legal concepts are brought to bear on law-making and a considerable element of self-administration is brought into state administration.

p Interaction between representative and direct democracy is also observed in the enforcement of government decisions. What we have in view here are the many-sided initiatives of the Soviets’ activists and mass organisations, 125 people’s control bodies and other forms of direct democracy.

p This interaction is one of the major advantages of the Soviet system, which makes it possible to combine the advantages of the representative system with the advantages of immediate and direct democracy. All the numerous forms of direct democracy merge, so to say, with popular representation, which is the principal instrument of people’s rule. As a result, the elected representatives of the people, supported by the masses and with the direct participation of the people, can discharge both their legislative function and execute laws.

This, in the final count, tremendously consolidates the rule of the people and promotes the role of the masses in political and economic activity.